Morality and Cognitive Decision Making Experiment

Morality and Cognitive Decision Making Experiment Moral Ethical Development Chapter II: Literature Review Researching the moral development, ethical decision making approaches, and the adoption of utilitarian ethics on the part of Taiwanese CPAs begins with a thorough literature review of these specific topics. The intent of this chapter is to evaluate the research instruments used for supporting and validating the hypotheses of this study as well. For purposes of clarity, this chapter is organization into three sections, starting with a review of moral development theories. The second section concentrates on the most commonly used instruments for completing measurement of ethical judgment and decision-making, with the last section of the chapter presenting an overview of empirical studies designed specifically to measure Taiwanese CPAs’ relationship to ethical evaluation and ethical intentions and overall moral development. Introduction to Moral Development Much of the foundational work completed in moral development is attributed to theorists who together have refined the key aspects of this field in the last twenty-five years. The evolution of moral development theories has concentrated on increasingly on its role in defining psychological aspects of moral development (Rest, 1979). Adding to the body of knowledge on moral development are the works of Kohlberg (1976) and Piaget (1932). In conjunction with Rest (1979), the works of these two theorists show specifically how the development of moral delineations and definitions are formative and not absolute, and have specific attributes associated with each. As accountancy is a field that relies heavily on trust and the fulfillment of fiduciary responsibilities, the importance of ethical judgments in the field of study is clear. Accountants and CPAs need to be the sustainers of public trust in the accounting and auditing professions. Ironically however one of the world’s largest scandals, Enron, was architected by accountants and auditors, which lead the U.S. government to legislate into law the Sarbanes-Oxley (SOX) Act of 2002. Later in this literature review the basis of the SOX Act will be discussed. As a result of the importance of ethical judgments in the accounting profession, several studies that are empirically based have had as their objective an assessment of the development of moral judgment, moral frameworks, and skills at assessing the ethical dilemmas that occur in the fulfillment of their professions. In researching and defining the moral development of organizations, the work of Paiget (1932) serves as a foundation, based on his assessment of how children form ethical and moral values through the study of their respect for rules. Paiget (1932) wrote The Moral Judgment of the Child to add to the field of knowledge on moral development. Paiget writes that â€Å"all morality consists in a system of rules, and the essence of all morality is to be sought for in the respect which the individual acquires for these rules† (p.13). Relying on observation as a research approach and completing interviews with a cross-section of boys to see how their comprehension of rules influencing the game was completed, Paiget was able to construct theories of moral development and the development of moral judgment. Paiget defined the concept of children developing morally through a progression from heteronomy, through stages of autonomy, finally to equity. Based on this research Paiget created a specific framework which describes the stages in conceptualization of moral decision-making and judgment, leading to the finding of rules presence and consciousness of rules as the foundation for developing moral judgment (Ponemon, 1990). The development of stages of Cognitive Developmental Theory (Piaget, 1997) are defined as follows. The first phase is where sensory-motor intelligence (younger than two years old) is prevalent. The second stage is pre-operational thought (two to seven years old) that serves as the foundation for creating more concrete concepts in the future. The third stage is called concrete operations and occurs between seven to eleven years old, with the fourth stage being formal operations that occur from eleven to adulthood. Paiget observed that by age 7, children begin playing with and cooperating with one another. Secondly Paiget observed children in the 11 to 12 age range see rules as permeable, capable of being negotiable and mutually agreeable. Theorizing that children are not born with the ability to understand and apply moral standards yet learn them over progressive stage, Piaget (1997) began creating a moral development theory that forms the foundation of Kohlberg’s creation of his own theories of moral development as well. Kohlberg refined and developed a six-stage sequence mode model and subsequently and empirically proved the assumptions of Piaget (1997), (Kohlberg 1976). His moral reasoning theory is a cognitive developmental theory that seeks to understand the reasoning behind how adults decide what course of action in morally right or wrong. Furthermore, Kohlberg’s theory develops sequentially through three levels of moral development,, with each level subdivided into two stages (Table 1), Kohlberg’s cognitive development theory is today regarded as a model and framework for ethics education according to Baxter and Rarick (1987) and Shenkir (1990). (Baxter Rarick, 1987; Shenkir, 1990) It’s clear that Piaget had a significant influence on the findings and conclusions of Kohlberg. This is evident for example in the second and third stages Kohlberg defines, which are exactly the same as Piaget’s. Despite this same approach to defining the specific level of moral development, Kohlberg differs from Piaget on the fourth through sixth stages of development. The factors that are driving the differences are the interpretations of internal moral convictions justice and that Kohlberg sees as overriding social expectations, norms, and values. Kohlberg’s work on moral development provided a foundation for further analysis of moral development and the formation of moral judgment as well. Specifically focused the measurement of the changes by stage of morale development, Kohlberg had defined a hypothesis that over time and throughout maturity children, then adults, become more attuned to moral development.(Kohlberg, 1981). Throughout the remainder of this life Kohlberg concentrated his efforts on moral education and the propagation of his theories. Despite the alignment of Kohlberg’s findings and analyses to Piaget (1997) and others in the area of normative moral development being aligned to the developmental phases of a child’s then adults’ life there are many critics of this view including the following academicians and theorists (Gilligan, 1993, , 1998; Gump, Baker, Roll, 2000; Reimer;, Paolitto, Hersh, 1990; Rest, Narvaez, Thoma, Bebeau, 1999, , 2000; Shweder, 1982; Spohn, 2000; Sullivan, 1977). Specifically these theorists have centered on four specific questions that form the foundation of their critique of Kohlberg’s theories (et.al.). First do the processes involved in moral reasoning foster and sustain moral behavior over time? Theorists remark that Kohlberg’s theory supports critical thinking regarding morality yet does not concentrating on what ought to be done versus what is actually accomplished (Sullivan, 1977). As part of this argument theorists contend that the lack of longitudinal empirical evidence to support the claim that the higher the level of moral judgment, the higher the level of moral behavior. During his lifetime, this was often discussed and presented as a critique of his work, an assessment he agreed with saying â€Å"I understand the theory of justice reasoning to be necessary but not sufficient for defining the full domain of what is meant by moral development† (Kohlberg, 1984). Whether or not knowing is equal to doing, knowing must typically come before doing, and so Kohlberg states that â€Å"the study of moral reasoning is valuable in its own right† (Kohlberg, 1984). Second, the suppositions that the only aspect of moral reasoning is justice when in fact there are many other factors to consider. The theorists have said that Kohlberg’s theories tend to overemphasize the perception of justice as the foundation for making decisions. Theorists have long argued that in addition to justice, additional factors including compassion, caring, and other interpersonal feelings may play an important part in moral reasoning. (Rest, Narvaez, Thoma, Bebeau, 1999; Spohn, 2000) The third major question of Kohlberg’s analysis is the minimal amount of empirical evidences for post-conventional level thinking , a critical assumption that underscore much of what Kohlberg based his analysis on(Rest, Narvaez, Thoma, Bebeau, 1999)The fourth question that emerges from the analysis is an assessment of Kohlberg’s theories and the over-reliance on the role and influence of Western culture. Critics and theorists contend that there is equally if not more emphasis specifically from Eastern cultures as well that have not been taken into account (J. C. Gibbs, 2003; Spohn, 2000). As a result of these critiques specific to his work, in 1985 Kohlberg decided to eliminate the sixth stage of his work, citing a lack of empirical evidence and proven causality once thought to be present. In addition, there appears to be a dearth of evidence of support the fifth stage of his model, and in fact theorists pointed to little support from previous empirically derived research. In addition to the above points, theorists contend that there is a dearth of evidence for the fifth level of scoring as defined by Kohlberg (Snarey, 1985). Gibbs (1979) is credited with being a co-developer of the scoring system and concentrates on moral judgment development throughout the fourth stage of the Kohlberg framework. In addition, Kohlberg defended the empirical data for the fifth and sixth stages stating that statistically significant findings had supported his framework, despite the critics and the lack of empirical studies that could be replicated by other theorists. The fifth and sixth stages are clearly centered on post conventional thinking, which is a limitation of Kohlbergs framework. The book Lawrence Kohlberg: Consensus and Controversy (Modgil Modgil, 1986) defines the shortcomings of the fifth and sixth stages of the Kohlberg model in depth, with several of the theorists mentioned in this literature review being the primary critics of Kohlberg’s theories. Analysis of Rest’s Theories James Rest (1979) developed a revision of the developmental process of moral judgment by looking at the shortcomings of Kohlberg (et.al.) and Piaget (1997). As a result, Rest’s moral judgment model is significantly different than Kohlberg’s (Rest, 1979). According to theorists, â€Å"For the measurement of moral reasoning, Rest’s model assesses an individual’s tendency to use concepts of justice based on social cooperation in his or her moral thinking, while Kohlberg’s model assesses an individual’s use of justice concepts, focusing more on exchange and individual interests† (Elm Weber, 1994), p. 346) Rest (1986) consequently a Four Component Model that captures for types of psychological processes must take place for an individual to experience moral behavior. The Rest Four Component Model is summarized by the key points below: Moral Judgment: the individual must make judgment on what should be the right thing to do. In other words, a person should be able to determine the appropriate action that is morally correct. Moral Sensitivity: This is defined as the interpretation of individuals’ actions in terms of responding to their overall assessment of situation. The intent of this aspect of the model is to refer to how an individual’s conduct is analyzed in terms of how is going to influence themselves and those who are associates and friends. Moral Motivation: the essence of defining and prioritizing moral decisions over competing contextual perceptions of morality. Moral values are, according to this model, above personal values. Moral values are always thought about first when making a decision. Moral Action: The sense of this specific element of the model requires the development of competence in the development and use of strategies that develop a moral foundation. According to this specific aspect of the model, the individual needs to have the integrity and self-determination to stay in alignment with their need for behaving morally and ethically over time. The point of this specific aspect of the model is that self-determination is a critical aspect of the total model. Assessing the Cognitive Moral Decision-Making Model The ethical decision-making of accounting, auditing and financial professionals have increasingly come under fire due to the major ethical lapses of these professionals that led to some of the largest scandals in history. Enron, MCI, Tyco and many other scandals are directly responsible for SOX legislation in the U.S. and a marked rise in compliance globally, preceded by the savings loan debacle of the 1980s, have together served as the catalyst of high levels of interest in the ethics of CPAs and finance professions (Cohen Pant, 1993; Lampe Finn, 1992; McNair Milam, 1993; Ponemon Gabhart, 1990; Shaub, 1994) From this body of research with regard to compliance surrounding ethics, Lampe and Finn (1992) have defined three dominant types of ethical decision making models. These are defined with the context of audits, and include agency models, cognitive models, and professional code-implied models. The intent of the study is primarily focused on the cognitive model component first, as it is the most pervasively used in evaluating the decision-making process of auditors (Ponemon Gabhart, 1993). Accounting ethics research, in the majority of studies is based on a cognitive moral decision making model as first analyzed and published by Rest (1986). Modeling the individual moral decision processes that include the reasoning and action processes in completing and carrying out ethical decisions and actions is defined in the model as well. According to the theory the person with a strong sense of morals is that that evaluates an ethical dilemma and situation to ensure that actions are evaluated for their ethicity first. In defining this model Rest (1984) states that interpreting the situation including the decision to try and decide which choices are, and if and how a decision might affect others (i.e., they try to determine if an ethical issue exists). The analysis next begins with an assessment that the use of moral judgment is also critical for the development of doing what ought to be done. The next step is to develop the moral intent and define just what exactly needs to be done. As part of this step the relative strengths and weaknesses of each decision is weighed by the emotions, perceptions, and socialization of the decision-maker. The final step is the selection of a given alternative that may or may not be taken based on the ethical judgment of the leader. (Rest, 1984). Recognize Moral Issue (Moral Sensitivity) Make Moral Judgment (Moral Judgment) Establish Moral Intention (Moral Motivation) Act Moral Behavior (Moral Action) In summary, the defined model of cognitive moral decision making, which is often referred to as Rest’s four component model, is used pervasively through the majority of accounting ethics research, and is also used for the insights into causality it provides. As a result of its pervasive use, this model serves as the foundation of the analysis of survey results completed as part of this dissertation as well. The Cognitive Ethical Decision Making Model is specifically focused on the development of the research plan and methodology in addition to analyzing the key results and findings from this research effort. Illustrating the Defining Issues Test (DIT) One of the other major contributions Rest (1979) made in ascertaining the ethics levels of respondents throughout his research was the development of the Defining Issues Test (DIT), which is also used in the research completed on this dissertation as a means of measuring theory of moral reasoning. Rest contends that the DIT model continues to supplant and enhance knowledge in the key area of empirical ethics research (Rest, 1979). How the DIT is constructed begins with a measurement of the individual’s responses to moral dilemmas often defined in the context of scenarios or short vignettes that explain the key concepts behind the concepts being tested. Through the use of these scenarios or vignettes, the respondents’ views of ethics and morality emerge (Rest 1979). The test is typically written yet has also been placed on websites to make it possible for respondents from many different locations geographically to take the test at the same time. It is considered one of the more effective tests at standardizing moral and ethical dilemmas and issue questions. The test is constructed with six dilemmas (three in the short version) is accompanied by 12 stage specific questions (items). The respondent next reads the dilemma and chooses one of three decisions that align with their perception of the situation. Following this, the respondent rates the importance of each of the 12 items to their decision. Finally, the respondent is asked to rank the four most important items using multiple choice questions. The Moral Judgment Interview (MJI) is a comparable test and allows the respondent to specifically respond with their statements about moral and ethical dilemmas presented. As is true with most research methods, the use of multiple-choice questions is more sound from a methodological standpoint and therefore improves the reliability factor of the DIT instrument over the MJI. The MJI requires the interviewer to assess the subject’s response and assign a value to that response, introducing bias into the analysis of results (Elm Webber, 1994). This method of scoring used in MJI could potentially influence the reliability of the results since the analyst who is interpreting the responses of the subject rather than the subject choosing a response from alternatives (Elm Webber, 1994). A typical structure of the DIT is a multiple-choice questionnaire that contains multiple scenarios or vignettes, and has been designed to have up to 12 moral arguments in each dilemma relating to moral reasoning. Each of the questions on the questionnaire asks the subjects to select the most illustrative or definitive response for each situation given their perspective of it. The DIT then uses a point system on a four-point scale to measure the overall responses and create a score that indicates the respondents’ moral and ethical reaction to the points made. A score of four points is given for the most important response, and one point given for the least important response. Both manually-based and machine-based approaches are used for tallying and analyzing the scores, with statistical analysis programs increasingly being used to manage this process. Often the scores are also measured as a series of indices as well. The Principled Index (P index or P score) is the most commonly used one in this field of research today (Rest, 1979). The first score mentioned is often the â€Å"P† score (principled morality) which defines the level of a respondents’ ethical cognition. This is a metric that quantifies the level of respondents’ reaction to scenarios and vignettes that are identified as Stage 5 and Stage 6 in the Rest’s theory. In addition to the â€Å"P† score, the â€Å"D† score quantifies responses fro all stages rather than just those identified in Stages 5 and 6. Critics have contended that the â€Å"P† score is more reliable and therefore more trustworthy as a measure of ethical cognition, a point that Rest has agreed with from his analysis (Rest, 1990). In re-assessing the value of â€Å"P† as a measure of ethical cognition, Rest wrote â€Å"†¦represents the sum of the weighted ranks given to principled items and is interpreted as the relative importance given to principled moral consideration in making a moral judgment. (p.101). Further supporting the reliability of the DIT test are the inclusion of control variables, or items that are purely included to provide a random check of consistency of responses (Rest, 1990). In more advanced research instruments, this approach to ensuring that the responses are consistent is commonly used. When incongruent or inconsistent responses are found they are given a code of â€Å"M† and tallied at the end of the survey. If this specific factor score is too high then the individual survey is considered unusable. Since its initial development, the test has been used in more than 500 documented studies globally, as claimed by its author (Rest, 1990). In quantifying the value of the research instrument from a reliability standpoint, there have been a series of internal validity measures completed as well, with a test-retest methodology used to track internal validity. Scores on these tests using the statistical technical called Chronbach’s alpha index deliver a consistently high level of reliability, with a .70 on the score of this specific statistical metric (Rest, 1986). One of the findings that Rest (1990) has seen from the work completed cumulatively is that the DIT scores tend to have a high correlation level to education and a low correlation to gender, religious beliefs and affiliates, and gender. The ability to empirically test moral development has been achieved with the DIT methodology, and by 1999 Rest and his colleagues created a new version, DIT-2 which is a revised updated stories and issue statements, was introduced. This new instrument is an improved version of the DIT, specifically including more measures of reliability and validity and the purging of questions that could lead to erroneous results despite the presence of control variables (Rest, Narvaez, Thoma, Bebeau, 1999). The DIT was chosen as the moral development instrument has the DIT-2 version has not been thoroughly tested enough therefore limited comparative data is available. This is especially true for accountant specific studies undertaken since the introduction of this second rating methodology. Secondly, while the DIT-2 generally is considered to be just as reliable as DIT given the latters’approach to managing reliability (Rest Narvaez, 1998). This specific dissertation will then focus on DIT as the measurement instrument for evaluating the ethics of Taiwanese CPAs. Empirical Analysis of Accountants through the use of DIT The concepts of moral development theory have provided the financial accounting profession with much opportunity for empirical research and investigation. While specific empirical studies have defined the current level of moral development of business majors including finance and accounting students, professional auditors, tenured and lecturing accounting educators, CPAs, and CMAs, there are many other empirically-derived studies that have focused on the relationship between moral development and various accounting specific behaviors. The intent of this area of the literature review is to represent the specific aspect of moral development research that has been conducted with respondents who are accountants. The impact of the six stage theory Kohlberg has often discussed and analyzed in the works cited in this research are also analysed using Rest’s four component model as foundation for completing an analysis using DIT results as the foundation for these efforts to create a pragmatic approach to analyzing the research. Validation of the DIT research instrument for use in conjunction with analyzing the ethical development of CPAs has been pioneered by Armstrong (1987) through the use of two samples of respondent group CPAs who were given the DIT. Using the mean DIT P scores of each respondent group and then comparing their relative means through the use of large samples of undergraduate college students, college graduate students, and adult respondents as reported by Rest (1979). After completing the analysis and calculating the mean DIT P scores, the results showed scores between the two CPA respondent groups as 37.1 and 38.5 respectively. Calculated mean DIT P scores of the three respondent audiences were as follows: college students (42.3), college graduates (53.3), and the adults in general (40.0). Armstrong (1987) stated that with the CPAs averaging only 1.1 years of post graduate education there was a significantly lower DIT P score reported and achieved by the CPAs. What also was found from the Armstrong analysis was that significantly lower DIT P scores obtained from CPAs occurred compared to both college students and adults as a general respondent group. From this analysis it’s clear that there is a normal progression in moral development that generally takes place in college, yet did not take place with the CPA groups. Their moral development, as measured by the DIT, had not progressed beyond that achieved by the general adult population. In addition to the research completed by Armstrong (1987) there has been significant work completed on the topic of moral development and theories of moral maturity relating to accounting students and professionals (St. Pierre, Nelson, Gabbin, 1990). This second study defined a respondent base of 479 seniors divided into 10 groups by major who were then given the DIT instrument to measure their level of cognitive ethical development. What is unique about this specific study is the definition of specific disciplines in the study as well including math, psychology, and social work. What is noteworthy from this student is that the mean DIT P scores for the respondent base of accounting majors were significantly below those of psychology majors. The researchers list the mean DIT P scores of 38.75 for the respondents who are male accountants and 45.85 for respondents are female accountants. This finding supported previous empirical studies relating to the development of ethical cognition in students, with female students receiving significantly higher scores, attributable to the previous results of empirical studies. Exacerbating these findings were also the DIT P score median value of 43.19 for college seniors. The use of the â€Å"M† value to ascertain the reliability of the study was also completed to better manage the sampling bias and potential errors. Based on these factors the research showed that there were no significant differences in DIT PI scores based on the exposure or not to an ethics course. Clearly the DTP P scores were seen as delineators of cognitive ethical development independent of formalized processes; there is in fact indication that ethically-oriented people do tend to gravitate towards majors that have a relatively high level of accountability, as psychology does for example. In an ancillary study, the work completed by Ponemon (1990) illustrated that through the study of 52 accountant respondents who ranged in position levels of staff, supervisor, manager, and partner were given the MJI to ascertain the relationship between moral stage development and hierarchical position. The results of the survey showed statistically significant results with the mean stage level increase from 3.4 at the staff level to 3.7 at the senior level and then to 4.1 at the supervisor level. While the MJI peaked at the supervisor level, mean stage levels decreased to 3.6 at the manager level and to a low of 2.9 at the partner level. Clearly the decline in MJI scores in this specific study contradicts the core concepts of moral development theory. Citing both a decline due to socialization and self-selection, Ponemon (1990) has stated that the results of this specific project do not necessarily refute ethical moral development theories. Following this research an paradigm (independence level) and the DIT were next analyzed (Ponemon Gabhart, 1990) in an empirical study of 119 respondents in a CPA firm group of audit managers and partners. Results of this specific analysis indicate that managers and partners who achieved low DIT P scores had the propensity to be more cognitively focused on the potential penalties than those respondents who have higher DIT P scores from the research. Not surprisingly there is a key finding from this research, that shows a significant negative relationship between rank and DIT P scores (managers-35.7; partners=30.1) in addition to the age and experience of respondents relative to their age and experience scores. Ponemon and Glazer (1990) also completed empirical research that attempted to add insights into the effects of a liberal college curriculum relative to the level of moral development. Respondents in this study are alumni practitioners in addition to two groups of students including freshmen, and accounting seniors. To ensure the study would be representative, respondents were randomly selected from two institutions that offer accounting degrees. The first institution included in the survey drew respondents from a private college where the accounting major curriculum is part of the liberal arts program. The second institution is a state university where accounting majors were not required or encouraged to take liberal arts courses. There were 143 total respondents in the study that completed the DIT, and the analysis of the results highlighted statistically significant scores between respondent groups. Further, the analysis revealed mean DIT P testing of freshman from both learning institutions was not significantly different between each of the learning institutions. At both the senior and alumni levels, the mean DIT P scores increased. Paradoxically the institution that had accounting as part of the liberal arts program had the higher DIT P scores than the institution that specifically focused on accounting as a core curriculum. In analyzing the results of the survey differences the researchers stated that to â€Å"†¦suggest that liberal learning in college may be an important factor in the development of the student’s and accounting practitioner’s moral reasoning† (p.204). The integration of accounting curriculum in liberal arts broader learning institutions has since become a foundational element in ethics research, and is relied on as a theoretical construct of the research completed in this dissertation. The dynamics involved in the moral development and perception of â€Å"whistle blowing† was studied in an empirical study that had 106 internal auditors as respondents by Arnold and Ponemon (1991) These researchers relied on the DIT research instrument to specifically assess the moral development in the context of experimental scenarios and vignettes surrounding a fraud case and experimental treatments that elicited the perception of internal auditors of â€Å"whistle blowing†. The results of this research illustrated the fact that internal auditors who scored low on the DIT P scale perceived the act of â€Å"whistle blowing† from the standpoint of personal punishment as a risk of unethical behavior than those with high DIT P scores. Clearly this supports the fact that the DIT P measurement instrument supports the contention that those internal auditors that have higher DIT P scores have a higher level of ethical cognition relative to those with lower DIT P scores. The internal auditors who scores lower on DIT P scores saw the act of â€Å"whistle blowing†, it can be inferred, as an external event that had negative consequences if a person was caught. This leads to the observation that internal auditors with low DIT P scores significantly externalize the ethical role of whistle blowers, while those with higher DIT P scores have already internalized ethical cognitions and see whistle blowing as incidental. Paradoxically however the main affiliation factors including punishment of others had little if any influence on the perc Morality and Cognitive Decision Making Experiment Morality and Cognitive Decision Making Experiment Moral Ethical Development Chapter II: Literature Review Researching the moral development, ethical decision making approaches, and the adoption of utilitarian ethics on the part of Taiwanese CPAs begins with a thorough literature review of these specific topics. The intent of this chapter is to evaluate the research instruments used for supporting and validating the hypotheses of this study as well. For purposes of clarity, this chapter is organization into three sections, starting with a review of moral development theories. The second section concentrates on the most commonly used instruments for completing measurement of ethical judgment and decision-making, with the last section of the chapter presenting an overview of empirical studies designed specifically to measure Taiwanese CPAs’ relationship to ethical evaluation and ethical intentions and overall moral development. Introduction to Moral Development Much of the foundational work completed in moral development is attributed to theorists who together have refined the key aspects of this field in the last twenty-five years. The evolution of moral development theories has concentrated on increasingly on its role in defining psychological aspects of moral development (Rest, 1979). Adding to the body of knowledge on moral development are the works of Kohlberg (1976) and Piaget (1932). In conjunction with Rest (1979), the works of these two theorists show specifically how the development of moral delineations and definitions are formative and not absolute, and have specific attributes associated with each. As accountancy is a field that relies heavily on trust and the fulfillment of fiduciary responsibilities, the importance of ethical judgments in the field of study is clear. Accountants and CPAs need to be the sustainers of public trust in the accounting and auditing professions. Ironically however one of the world’s largest scandals, Enron, was architected by accountants and auditors, which lead the U.S. government to legislate into law the Sarbanes-Oxley (SOX) Act of 2002. Later in this literature review the basis of the SOX Act will be discussed. As a result of the importance of ethical judgments in the accounting profession, several studies that are empirically based have had as their objective an assessment of the development of moral judgment, moral frameworks, and skills at assessing the ethical dilemmas that occur in the fulfillment of their professions. In researching and defining the moral development of organizations, the work of Paiget (1932) serves as a foundation, based on his assessment of how children form ethical and moral values through the study of their respect for rules. Paiget (1932) wrote The Moral Judgment of the Child to add to the field of knowledge on moral development. Paiget writes that â€Å"all morality consists in a system of rules, and the essence of all morality is to be sought for in the respect which the individual acquires for these rules† (p.13). Relying on observation as a research approach and completing interviews with a cross-section of boys to see how their comprehension of rules influencing the game was completed, Paiget was able to construct theories of moral development and the development of moral judgment. Paiget defined the concept of children developing morally through a progression from heteronomy, through stages of autonomy, finally to equity. Based on this research Paiget created a specific framework which describes the stages in conceptualization of moral decision-making and judgment, leading to the finding of rules presence and consciousness of rules as the foundation for developing moral judgment (Ponemon, 1990). The development of stages of Cognitive Developmental Theory (Piaget, 1997) are defined as follows. The first phase is where sensory-motor intelligence (younger than two years old) is prevalent. The second stage is pre-operational thought (two to seven years old) that serves as the foundation for creating more concrete concepts in the future. The third stage is called concrete operations and occurs between seven to eleven years old, with the fourth stage being formal operations that occur from eleven to adulthood. Paiget observed that by age 7, children begin playing with and cooperating with one another. Secondly Paiget observed children in the 11 to 12 age range see rules as permeable, capable of being negotiable and mutually agreeable. Theorizing that children are not born with the ability to understand and apply moral standards yet learn them over progressive stage, Piaget (1997) began creating a moral development theory that forms the foundation of Kohlberg’s creation of his own theories of moral development as well. Kohlberg refined and developed a six-stage sequence mode model and subsequently and empirically proved the assumptions of Piaget (1997), (Kohlberg 1976). His moral reasoning theory is a cognitive developmental theory that seeks to understand the reasoning behind how adults decide what course of action in morally right or wrong. Furthermore, Kohlberg’s theory develops sequentially through three levels of moral development,, with each level subdivided into two stages (Table 1), Kohlberg’s cognitive development theory is today regarded as a model and framework for ethics education according to Baxter and Rarick (1987) and Shenkir (1990). (Baxter Rarick, 1987; Shenkir, 1990) It’s clear that Piaget had a significant influence on the findings and conclusions of Kohlberg. This is evident for example in the second and third stages Kohlberg defines, which are exactly the same as Piaget’s. Despite this same approach to defining the specific level of moral development, Kohlberg differs from Piaget on the fourth through sixth stages of development. The factors that are driving the differences are the interpretations of internal moral convictions justice and that Kohlberg sees as overriding social expectations, norms, and values. Kohlberg’s work on moral development provided a foundation for further analysis of moral development and the formation of moral judgment as well. Specifically focused the measurement of the changes by stage of morale development, Kohlberg had defined a hypothesis that over time and throughout maturity children, then adults, become more attuned to moral development.(Kohlberg, 1981). Throughout the remainder of this life Kohlberg concentrated his efforts on moral education and the propagation of his theories. Despite the alignment of Kohlberg’s findings and analyses to Piaget (1997) and others in the area of normative moral development being aligned to the developmental phases of a child’s then adults’ life there are many critics of this view including the following academicians and theorists (Gilligan, 1993, , 1998; Gump, Baker, Roll, 2000; Reimer;, Paolitto, Hersh, 1990; Rest, Narvaez, Thoma, Bebeau, 1999, , 2000; Shweder, 1982; Spohn, 2000; Sullivan, 1977). Specifically these theorists have centered on four specific questions that form the foundation of their critique of Kohlberg’s theories (et.al.). First do the processes involved in moral reasoning foster and sustain moral behavior over time? Theorists remark that Kohlberg’s theory supports critical thinking regarding morality yet does not concentrating on what ought to be done versus what is actually accomplished (Sullivan, 1977). As part of this argument theorists contend that the lack of longitudinal empirical evidence to support the claim that the higher the level of moral judgment, the higher the level of moral behavior. During his lifetime, this was often discussed and presented as a critique of his work, an assessment he agreed with saying â€Å"I understand the theory of justice reasoning to be necessary but not sufficient for defining the full domain of what is meant by moral development† (Kohlberg, 1984). Whether or not knowing is equal to doing, knowing must typically come before doing, and so Kohlberg states that â€Å"the study of moral reasoning is valuable in its own right† (Kohlberg, 1984). Second, the suppositions that the only aspect of moral reasoning is justice when in fact there are many other factors to consider. The theorists have said that Kohlberg’s theories tend to overemphasize the perception of justice as the foundation for making decisions. Theorists have long argued that in addition to justice, additional factors including compassion, caring, and other interpersonal feelings may play an important part in moral reasoning. (Rest, Narvaez, Thoma, Bebeau, 1999; Spohn, 2000) The third major question of Kohlberg’s analysis is the minimal amount of empirical evidences for post-conventional level thinking , a critical assumption that underscore much of what Kohlberg based his analysis on(Rest, Narvaez, Thoma, Bebeau, 1999)The fourth question that emerges from the analysis is an assessment of Kohlberg’s theories and the over-reliance on the role and influence of Western culture. Critics and theorists contend that there is equally if not more emphasis specifically from Eastern cultures as well that have not been taken into account (J. C. Gibbs, 2003; Spohn, 2000). As a result of these critiques specific to his work, in 1985 Kohlberg decided to eliminate the sixth stage of his work, citing a lack of empirical evidence and proven causality once thought to be present. In addition, there appears to be a dearth of evidence of support the fifth stage of his model, and in fact theorists pointed to little support from previous empirically derived research. In addition to the above points, theorists contend that there is a dearth of evidence for the fifth level of scoring as defined by Kohlberg (Snarey, 1985). Gibbs (1979) is credited with being a co-developer of the scoring system and concentrates on moral judgment development throughout the fourth stage of the Kohlberg framework. In addition, Kohlberg defended the empirical data for the fifth and sixth stages stating that statistically significant findings had supported his framework, despite the critics and the lack of empirical studies that could be replicated by other theorists. The fifth and sixth stages are clearly centered on post conventional thinking, which is a limitation of Kohlbergs framework. The book Lawrence Kohlberg: Consensus and Controversy (Modgil Modgil, 1986) defines the shortcomings of the fifth and sixth stages of the Kohlberg model in depth, with several of the theorists mentioned in this literature review being the primary critics of Kohlberg’s theories. Analysis of Rest’s Theories James Rest (1979) developed a revision of the developmental process of moral judgment by looking at the shortcomings of Kohlberg (et.al.) and Piaget (1997). As a result, Rest’s moral judgment model is significantly different than Kohlberg’s (Rest, 1979). According to theorists, â€Å"For the measurement of moral reasoning, Rest’s model assesses an individual’s tendency to use concepts of justice based on social cooperation in his or her moral thinking, while Kohlberg’s model assesses an individual’s use of justice concepts, focusing more on exchange and individual interests† (Elm Weber, 1994), p. 346) Rest (1986) consequently a Four Component Model that captures for types of psychological processes must take place for an individual to experience moral behavior. The Rest Four Component Model is summarized by the key points below: Moral Judgment: the individual must make judgment on what should be the right thing to do. In other words, a person should be able to determine the appropriate action that is morally correct. Moral Sensitivity: This is defined as the interpretation of individuals’ actions in terms of responding to their overall assessment of situation. The intent of this aspect of the model is to refer to how an individual’s conduct is analyzed in terms of how is going to influence themselves and those who are associates and friends. Moral Motivation: the essence of defining and prioritizing moral decisions over competing contextual perceptions of morality. Moral values are, according to this model, above personal values. Moral values are always thought about first when making a decision. Moral Action: The sense of this specific element of the model requires the development of competence in the development and use of strategies that develop a moral foundation. According to this specific aspect of the model, the individual needs to have the integrity and self-determination to stay in alignment with their need for behaving morally and ethically over time. The point of this specific aspect of the model is that self-determination is a critical aspect of the total model. Assessing the Cognitive Moral Decision-Making Model The ethical decision-making of accounting, auditing and financial professionals have increasingly come under fire due to the major ethical lapses of these professionals that led to some of the largest scandals in history. Enron, MCI, Tyco and many other scandals are directly responsible for SOX legislation in the U.S. and a marked rise in compliance globally, preceded by the savings loan debacle of the 1980s, have together served as the catalyst of high levels of interest in the ethics of CPAs and finance professions (Cohen Pant, 1993; Lampe Finn, 1992; McNair Milam, 1993; Ponemon Gabhart, 1990; Shaub, 1994) From this body of research with regard to compliance surrounding ethics, Lampe and Finn (1992) have defined three dominant types of ethical decision making models. These are defined with the context of audits, and include agency models, cognitive models, and professional code-implied models. The intent of the study is primarily focused on the cognitive model component first, as it is the most pervasively used in evaluating the decision-making process of auditors (Ponemon Gabhart, 1993). Accounting ethics research, in the majority of studies is based on a cognitive moral decision making model as first analyzed and published by Rest (1986). Modeling the individual moral decision processes that include the reasoning and action processes in completing and carrying out ethical decisions and actions is defined in the model as well. According to the theory the person with a strong sense of morals is that that evaluates an ethical dilemma and situation to ensure that actions are evaluated for their ethicity first. In defining this model Rest (1984) states that interpreting the situation including the decision to try and decide which choices are, and if and how a decision might affect others (i.e., they try to determine if an ethical issue exists). The analysis next begins with an assessment that the use of moral judgment is also critical for the development of doing what ought to be done. The next step is to develop the moral intent and define just what exactly needs to be done. As part of this step the relative strengths and weaknesses of each decision is weighed by the emotions, perceptions, and socialization of the decision-maker. The final step is the selection of a given alternative that may or may not be taken based on the ethical judgment of the leader. (Rest, 1984). Recognize Moral Issue (Moral Sensitivity) Make Moral Judgment (Moral Judgment) Establish Moral Intention (Moral Motivation) Act Moral Behavior (Moral Action) In summary, the defined model of cognitive moral decision making, which is often referred to as Rest’s four component model, is used pervasively through the majority of accounting ethics research, and is also used for the insights into causality it provides. As a result of its pervasive use, this model serves as the foundation of the analysis of survey results completed as part of this dissertation as well. The Cognitive Ethical Decision Making Model is specifically focused on the development of the research plan and methodology in addition to analyzing the key results and findings from this research effort. Illustrating the Defining Issues Test (DIT) One of the other major contributions Rest (1979) made in ascertaining the ethics levels of respondents throughout his research was the development of the Defining Issues Test (DIT), which is also used in the research completed on this dissertation as a means of measuring theory of moral reasoning. Rest contends that the DIT model continues to supplant and enhance knowledge in the key area of empirical ethics research (Rest, 1979). How the DIT is constructed begins with a measurement of the individual’s responses to moral dilemmas often defined in the context of scenarios or short vignettes that explain the key concepts behind the concepts being tested. Through the use of these scenarios or vignettes, the respondents’ views of ethics and morality emerge (Rest 1979). The test is typically written yet has also been placed on websites to make it possible for respondents from many different locations geographically to take the test at the same time. It is considered one of the more effective tests at standardizing moral and ethical dilemmas and issue questions. The test is constructed with six dilemmas (three in the short version) is accompanied by 12 stage specific questions (items). The respondent next reads the dilemma and chooses one of three decisions that align with their perception of the situation. Following this, the respondent rates the importance of each of the 12 items to their decision. Finally, the respondent is asked to rank the four most important items using multiple choice questions. The Moral Judgment Interview (MJI) is a comparable test and allows the respondent to specifically respond with their statements about moral and ethical dilemmas presented. As is true with most research methods, the use of multiple-choice questions is more sound from a methodological standpoint and therefore improves the reliability factor of the DIT instrument over the MJI. The MJI requires the interviewer to assess the subject’s response and assign a value to that response, introducing bias into the analysis of results (Elm Webber, 1994). This method of scoring used in MJI could potentially influence the reliability of the results since the analyst who is interpreting the responses of the subject rather than the subject choosing a response from alternatives (Elm Webber, 1994). A typical structure of the DIT is a multiple-choice questionnaire that contains multiple scenarios or vignettes, and has been designed to have up to 12 moral arguments in each dilemma relating to moral reasoning. Each of the questions on the questionnaire asks the subjects to select the most illustrative or definitive response for each situation given their perspective of it. The DIT then uses a point system on a four-point scale to measure the overall responses and create a score that indicates the respondents’ moral and ethical reaction to the points made. A score of four points is given for the most important response, and one point given for the least important response. Both manually-based and machine-based approaches are used for tallying and analyzing the scores, with statistical analysis programs increasingly being used to manage this process. Often the scores are also measured as a series of indices as well. The Principled Index (P index or P score) is the most commonly used one in this field of research today (Rest, 1979). The first score mentioned is often the â€Å"P† score (principled morality) which defines the level of a respondents’ ethical cognition. This is a metric that quantifies the level of respondents’ reaction to scenarios and vignettes that are identified as Stage 5 and Stage 6 in the Rest’s theory. In addition to the â€Å"P† score, the â€Å"D† score quantifies responses fro all stages rather than just those identified in Stages 5 and 6. Critics have contended that the â€Å"P† score is more reliable and therefore more trustworthy as a measure of ethical cognition, a point that Rest has agreed with from his analysis (Rest, 1990). In re-assessing the value of â€Å"P† as a measure of ethical cognition, Rest wrote â€Å"†¦represents the sum of the weighted ranks given to principled items and is interpreted as the relative importance given to principled moral consideration in making a moral judgment. (p.101). Further supporting the reliability of the DIT test are the inclusion of control variables, or items that are purely included to provide a random check of consistency of responses (Rest, 1990). In more advanced research instruments, this approach to ensuring that the responses are consistent is commonly used. When incongruent or inconsistent responses are found they are given a code of â€Å"M† and tallied at the end of the survey. If this specific factor score is too high then the individual survey is considered unusable. Since its initial development, the test has been used in more than 500 documented studies globally, as claimed by its author (Rest, 1990). In quantifying the value of the research instrument from a reliability standpoint, there have been a series of internal validity measures completed as well, with a test-retest methodology used to track internal validity. Scores on these tests using the statistical technical called Chronbach’s alpha index deliver a consistently high level of reliability, with a .70 on the score of this specific statistical metric (Rest, 1986). One of the findings that Rest (1990) has seen from the work completed cumulatively is that the DIT scores tend to have a high correlation level to education and a low correlation to gender, religious beliefs and affiliates, and gender. The ability to empirically test moral development has been achieved with the DIT methodology, and by 1999 Rest and his colleagues created a new version, DIT-2 which is a revised updated stories and issue statements, was introduced. This new instrument is an improved version of the DIT, specifically including more measures of reliability and validity and the purging of questions that could lead to erroneous results despite the presence of control variables (Rest, Narvaez, Thoma, Bebeau, 1999). The DIT was chosen as the moral development instrument has the DIT-2 version has not been thoroughly tested enough therefore limited comparative data is available. This is especially true for accountant specific studies undertaken since the introduction of this second rating methodology. Secondly, while the DIT-2 generally is considered to be just as reliable as DIT given the latters’approach to managing reliability (Rest Narvaez, 1998). This specific dissertation will then focus on DIT as the measurement instrument for evaluating the ethics of Taiwanese CPAs. Empirical Analysis of Accountants through the use of DIT The concepts of moral development theory have provided the financial accounting profession with much opportunity for empirical research and investigation. While specific empirical studies have defined the current level of moral development of business majors including finance and accounting students, professional auditors, tenured and lecturing accounting educators, CPAs, and CMAs, there are many other empirically-derived studies that have focused on the relationship between moral development and various accounting specific behaviors. The intent of this area of the literature review is to represent the specific aspect of moral development research that has been conducted with respondents who are accountants. The impact of the six stage theory Kohlberg has often discussed and analyzed in the works cited in this research are also analysed using Rest’s four component model as foundation for completing an analysis using DIT results as the foundation for these efforts to create a pragmatic approach to analyzing the research. Validation of the DIT research instrument for use in conjunction with analyzing the ethical development of CPAs has been pioneered by Armstrong (1987) through the use of two samples of respondent group CPAs who were given the DIT. Using the mean DIT P scores of each respondent group and then comparing their relative means through the use of large samples of undergraduate college students, college graduate students, and adult respondents as reported by Rest (1979). After completing the analysis and calculating the mean DIT P scores, the results showed scores between the two CPA respondent groups as 37.1 and 38.5 respectively. Calculated mean DIT P scores of the three respondent audiences were as follows: college students (42.3), college graduates (53.3), and the adults in general (40.0). Armstrong (1987) stated that with the CPAs averaging only 1.1 years of post graduate education there was a significantly lower DIT P score reported and achieved by the CPAs. What also was found from the Armstrong analysis was that significantly lower DIT P scores obtained from CPAs occurred compared to both college students and adults as a general respondent group. From this analysis it’s clear that there is a normal progression in moral development that generally takes place in college, yet did not take place with the CPA groups. Their moral development, as measured by the DIT, had not progressed beyond that achieved by the general adult population. In addition to the research completed by Armstrong (1987) there has been significant work completed on the topic of moral development and theories of moral maturity relating to accounting students and professionals (St. Pierre, Nelson, Gabbin, 1990). This second study defined a respondent base of 479 seniors divided into 10 groups by major who were then given the DIT instrument to measure their level of cognitive ethical development. What is unique about this specific study is the definition of specific disciplines in the study as well including math, psychology, and social work. What is noteworthy from this student is that the mean DIT P scores for the respondent base of accounting majors were significantly below those of psychology majors. The researchers list the mean DIT P scores of 38.75 for the respondents who are male accountants and 45.85 for respondents are female accountants. This finding supported previous empirical studies relating to the development of ethical cognition in students, with female students receiving significantly higher scores, attributable to the previous results of empirical studies. Exacerbating these findings were also the DIT P score median value of 43.19 for college seniors. The use of the â€Å"M† value to ascertain the reliability of the study was also completed to better manage the sampling bias and potential errors. Based on these factors the research showed that there were no significant differences in DIT PI scores based on the exposure or not to an ethics course. Clearly the DTP P scores were seen as delineators of cognitive ethical development independent of formalized processes; there is in fact indication that ethically-oriented people do tend to gravitate towards majors that have a relatively high level of accountability, as psychology does for example. In an ancillary study, the work completed by Ponemon (1990) illustrated that through the study of 52 accountant respondents who ranged in position levels of staff, supervisor, manager, and partner were given the MJI to ascertain the relationship between moral stage development and hierarchical position. The results of the survey showed statistically significant results with the mean stage level increase from 3.4 at the staff level to 3.7 at the senior level and then to 4.1 at the supervisor level. While the MJI peaked at the supervisor level, mean stage levels decreased to 3.6 at the manager level and to a low of 2.9 at the partner level. Clearly the decline in MJI scores in this specific study contradicts the core concepts of moral development theory. Citing both a decline due to socialization and self-selection, Ponemon (1990) has stated that the results of this specific project do not necessarily refute ethical moral development theories. Following this research an paradigm (independence level) and the DIT were next analyzed (Ponemon Gabhart, 1990) in an empirical study of 119 respondents in a CPA firm group of audit managers and partners. Results of this specific analysis indicate that managers and partners who achieved low DIT P scores had the propensity to be more cognitively focused on the potential penalties than those respondents who have higher DIT P scores from the research. Not surprisingly there is a key finding from this research, that shows a significant negative relationship between rank and DIT P scores (managers-35.7; partners=30.1) in addition to the age and experience of respondents relative to their age and experience scores. Ponemon and Glazer (1990) also completed empirical research that attempted to add insights into the effects of a liberal college curriculum relative to the level of moral development. Respondents in this study are alumni practitioners in addition to two groups of students including freshmen, and accounting seniors. To ensure the study would be representative, respondents were randomly selected from two institutions that offer accounting degrees. The first institution included in the survey drew respondents from a private college where the accounting major curriculum is part of the liberal arts program. The second institution is a state university where accounting majors were not required or encouraged to take liberal arts courses. There were 143 total respondents in the study that completed the DIT, and the analysis of the results highlighted statistically significant scores between respondent groups. Further, the analysis revealed mean DIT P testing of freshman from both learning institutions was not significantly different between each of the learning institutions. At both the senior and alumni levels, the mean DIT P scores increased. Paradoxically the institution that had accounting as part of the liberal arts program had the higher DIT P scores than the institution that specifically focused on accounting as a core curriculum. In analyzing the results of the survey differences the researchers stated that to â€Å"†¦suggest that liberal learning in college may be an important factor in the development of the student’s and accounting practitioner’s moral reasoning† (p.204). The integration of accounting curriculum in liberal arts broader learning institutions has since become a foundational element in ethics research, and is relied on as a theoretical construct of the research completed in this dissertation. The dynamics involved in the moral development and perception of â€Å"whistle blowing† was studied in an empirical study that had 106 internal auditors as respondents by Arnold and Ponemon (1991) These researchers relied on the DIT research instrument to specifically assess the moral development in the context of experimental scenarios and vignettes surrounding a fraud case and experimental treatments that elicited the perception of internal auditors of â€Å"whistle blowing†. The results of this research illustrated the fact that internal auditors who scored low on the DIT P scale perceived the act of â€Å"whistle blowing† from the standpoint of personal punishment as a risk of unethical behavior than those with high DIT P scores. Clearly this supports the fact that the DIT P measurement instrument supports the contention that those internal auditors that have higher DIT P scores have a higher level of ethical cognition relative to those with lower DIT P scores. The internal auditors who scores lower on DIT P scores saw the act of â€Å"whistle blowing†, it can be inferred, as an external event that had negative consequences if a person was caught. This leads to the observation that internal auditors with low DIT P scores significantly externalize the ethical role of whistle blowers, while those with higher DIT P scores have already internalized ethical cognitions and see whistle blowing as incidental. Paradoxically however the main affiliation factors including punishment of others had little if any influence on the perc

Poetry Essay - Anaylsis of 9 Poems :: Duffy Armitage Plath Milligan Hood Clarke Heaney

In this piece of coursework I am going to analysis and compare a number of poems, some written by the same authors and some by different authors. All 9 poems have one common link which is: Youth. The first poem is called â€Å"Stealing† and it was written by Carol Ann Duffy. This poem is about a troubled young man who takes away a snowman from someone’s garden and talks about other items he has stolen before such as a camera. In this poem there are certain words and phrases which you can relate to your sense of sight, hearing, smell, touch and taste. For example when he describes the snowman as â€Å"A mate with a mind as cold as the slice of ice,† which you can use your sense of hearing and hear someone cutting through the ice. Also where he says â€Å"I was standing alone amongst lumps of snow,† where you can picture this person standing there alone with a snowman crushed at his feet. I think this add enjoyment to the poem as it is getting you to see, hear, feel exactly what is happening in the poem which makes it more real. He uses a lot of metaphors. For an example he talks about the snowman being as â€Å"cold as the slice of ice within my own brain† and â€Å"a fierce chill pierced my gut,† where he is talking about the snowman on the outside but also talking about how he feels on the inside, cold and lonely. In this poem the poet has chosen to separate the events and place a stanza in the middle, so the poem starts off talking about the snowman and what it feels like but the third verse talks about the person’s life and then back to talking about the snowman. I think the poet has done this to add more effect to the poem, as it indicates that the person in the poem does not understand themselves let alone explain them self to anyone else. Also that they think about their lifestyle a lot and that they do not understand why they do what they do. In this poem there is no rhyme. I think this is because the poet wants to make the poem sound more serious and realistic than childish with loads of rhyming words.

Freudian Analysis of “Beauty and the Beast” Essay

           In â€Å"Beauty and the Beast†, Beauty, the dreamer, successfully travels through the phallic stage and the Oedipus complex into the latency and genital stages. She is at first attached to her father, and wants to protect him. She mentions that she is willing to even die for him so that he can live a happy life. Beauty eventually realizes that she is actually in love with the beast (Brett, n.p).             Beauty starts out in the phallic stage of development. She is starting to recognize the difference between male and female, however, she still views males as beastly, and chose her father over them. When the beast comes into the story, Beauty offers to sacrifice her life for her father. This shows the Oedipus complex of Beauty. She still is competing with other people for her dad. Beauty’s father depicts phallic symbolism of a man through the efforts that he undertakes to especially by portraying that he is a self-made man, that is wealthy and makes use of common sense (Brett, n.p). Beauty’s father is portrayed as a self-made, wealthy man with common sense. Despite his bad luck and loss of his wealth, he still manages to bring up his six children and provide them with quite a comfortable life, talking the role of the man of the house and ensuring that his family is provided for despite all the circumstances.             Beauty stays in the Oedipus complex when she is brought into the castle. She still views other males as gross (the beast) and puts her father first. When the beast asks to marry her, she quickly rejects him. However, the Beast continues to see her regularly, day after day (Brett, n.p). The beast offers for Beauty to see her father, except that he would die if this happened. This is when Beauty starts entering the latency stage.            When Beauty visits her father and her sisters, she starts to realize how much she is longing to see the Beast. She starts to get annoyed by her sisters, who are jealous of how beautiful she is. However, she spends most of her time with the same sex, a sure sign of the latency stage. Beauty is seen to be very close to her father in a way and has what is referred to as an â€Å"electra complex† which is an â€Å"oedipal complex†, a female version (Brett, n.p). She sees her father as one that never does anything wrong and is always a good person. There is no fight between her and her mother over her dad hence she becomes quite closer to him although she undergoes a very quick transition (Brett, n.p).          When Beauty sees Beast at the end of the story, she is scared that the Beast will kill himself since she did not keep her promise. The Beast is upset about this, but still says how happy he is to see her and that he will die satisfied. This is where the genital stage begins. Beauty explains her love for him and that she cannot live without him. She is basically starting to go through puberty, a sure sign of the genital stage (Brett, n.p).          As Beauty passes through the stages in her life, she has the desire to read but also has more desires that she wants to satisfy and is not sure of the place or the person to find it from but this change when she starts developing interest and liking for the Beast. On the other hand, the Beast is seen as unconsciously searching for some form of help as well as someone that can be able to love him for who he is. As the picture and symbol of morality, Beauty finally develops a super-ego that is great (Brett, n.p).             Beauty passes through all of the stages of psychosexual development without much of a problem. She overcomes a little bit of trouble with the Oedipus complex, but seems to finally get to the genital stage when the story is over (Brett, n.p). The end of the story represents the rest of the genital stage where Beauty recognizes her love for the opposite sex. She has to renounce her affection and care for her father for a suitor that she would be spending the rest of her life with (Brett, n.p). In this part, the Beast, despite the nature of that he has, undergoes a lot of struggle in trying to contain and control the urges that he has just to have someone to love him. The refinement of the Beast in to something that is more human is not a mere facade, but it is part of who he really is and also forms part of the reason why he is able to succeed in controlling his lust (Brett, n.p).               The Beast is symbol of dual nature of the males whereby the outside portrays the rough and manipulative males while the inside is full of love and care, similar to Beauty’s father. He is strong on the outside and strict with his daughters although in the inside he is compassionate and loves them hence takes care of them despite losing his wealth (Brett, n.p). From the overall story, male presence is dominant and the Beauty has to make a choice between men that she is emotionally attached to in her life. Her father has been part of life for a long time but she then finds love and intimacy in the Beast, of which she wants to experience in her life as she also loves the Beast. Reference Brett, Jan. Beauty and the Beast. New York: Clarion Books, 1989. Print. N.p Source document

How to Write a Scholarship Essay Detailed Guidelines to Help You

How to Write a Scholarship Essay Detailed Guidelines to Help You When looking for available options to fund your further college education after graduating from a high school, you may come across different scholarship essay contests that can award you with the money necessary to earn your degree. They ask you to submit a winning application. How to write a scholarship essay? This process isn’t easy and it requires you to brainstorm original ideas, create an effective outline, and make a strong point. Focus on good examples, use efficient tips, and read the papers written by a successful person who won a contest in the past. How to start your scholarship essay? To comprehend how to write a winning scholarship application essay, read prompts to give an accurate response in your own words. These are statements or questions that you need to respond. Understanding them ensures that you’ll stay on topic and fulfill academic expectations. If you aren’t sure what the theme your scholarship essay should be, look at the main purpose of the chosen contest and learn why organizations give away money. Write your paper with these reasons in mind. Other guidelines for how to write a scholarship essay that you should follow include: Brainstorming ideas; Outlining your piece of writing; Stating your thesis; Offering supporting points. Brainstorming interesting ideas Once you understand your prompts, sit down and brainstorm interesting ideas to save more energy and time for composing your future scholarship essay. Write down everything you think important and appropriate. It’s possible to generate good ideas by freewriting, the exercise that focuses on responding to the questions that you find in your prompts. Read your notes and highlight all useful ideas. ASK FOR PROFESSIONAL HELP Outlining your scholarship essay It may be shorter than standard academic papers and its length depends on a specific scholarship contest. Think about breaking your essay down into three basic sections. What are they? An introductory paragraph that contains a special hook and your thesis (it’s an opening part that catches readers’ attention and draws them in); Body paragraphs with strong supporting evidence for your thesis that explores major themes (feel free to use personal reflections and experiences); A concluding section that wraps up important information and contains a moral of your story. Stating your strong thesis It’s a focus of your entire scholarship essay because its thesis acts as a guide or your roadmap. Make it strong to ensure that your paper feels concise and direct. What is the main point of your writing in just one sentence? Create your thesis statement by answering this question and focusing on its brevity and specificity to save time and achieve good results. Offering supporting points Include a few supporting points and transitions in the main body of your scholarship essay because they will help you structure it properly. They should support your thesis. These points can help you make it easier to write this paper because you don’t have to look for additional evidence. Steps for composing your scholarship essay If you wonder how to write a winning scholarship essay, check out these basic steps that will make your life easier: Create a hook; Make it specific and personal to you; Tailor it to your targeted audience; Include important accomplishments; Avoid common clichà ©s; Use your inspirational and positive tone. What is a hook? A hook is the opening line of your scholarship essay that should be engaging, bold, and specific to draw your readers in. Your strong hook can help it stand out from other applications. Avoid writing vague, dry, and impersonal opening lines because they won’t tell committee members anything about your individuality and perspective. Make it specific and personal Your scholarship essay will be strong and impressive if you focus it on how you relate to given prompts on your personal level. Use a personal approach to tell readers your story. This simple strategy will make your paper feel specific and personal while telling all committee members more about you as their perfect candidate. Tailor it to your targeted audience Consider who will read your scholarship essay to make it appealing to the targeted audience. Think about their expectations to appeal to their interests. Although you should be focused, passionate, and personal, it’s necessary to include the details that can interest your readers at once. Committee members want to know your personal experiences and expect you to address prompts and meet the necessary academic requirements. ORDER MY SCHOLARSHIP ESSAY Why are accomplishments important? Don’t be afraid to include your major achievements and awards because you’re writing a scholarship essay to impress readers and show them why you’re the best candidate. Put your accomplishments in context and share details about them. Use them to relate to prompts if possible. Avoid common clichà ©s To write the best scholarship essay and impress committee members, it’s advisable to be original and honest. Many applicants use clichà ©s and submit unspecific personal narratives. Avoid clichà ©s because they will tell readers that you aren’t creative enough. Think about your personal experiences and circumstances that shaped your individuality and explain why you’re privileged and should win a contest. Avoid making a scholarship essay your confessional narrative where you relay all of your terrible past sins and redemption experiences. This paper should highlight your winning life events and qualities. Confessing your past crimes will never make you appear the best candidate to win awards and get the money you need for further education. Use your inspirational and positive tone A successful scholarship essay should present a positive and relatable tone to help you win. How to achieve it? Use only inspirational personal experiences and examples to demonstrate committee members how you overcame challenges or difficulties in your life. Don’t forget to polish your final draft. The above-mentioned tips will help you draft a perfect scholarship paper. If you still have difficulties, get expert assistance online and use top-quality services of professional writers ready to help you 24 hours per day.

Dvorak keyboard essays

Dvorak keyboard essays The Dvorak keyboard layout has been slow to catch on due to lack of scientifically conclusive evidence that it is superior to the QWERTY sequence. The majority of positive test results seem to come from Dvorak himself, who had a financial and intellectual investment in his patent. Ergonomic studies did not support his superior claim for the layout. Tests done by the Department of the Navy were positive, but considering that Dvorak was also a Naval Officer, it is no wonder that endorsement was provided by the U.S. Navy. Businesses are slow to accept a change in an accepted standard due to the risks of rejection by competitors. The comparison of the two is very similar to the videotape format issue except that technically proved superiority is very questionable. Change to a historically accepted standard has always been a slow process. Supply and demand is still the cornerstone of marketing and demand for the Dvorak layout is small. It is even more so if the layout conversion is negle cted by the community that it is suppose to benefit: the professional typists. Early studies done by the U.S. General Services Administration in 1953 appear to give a more objective conclusion than that of Dvorak's work on his layout. It found that good typist are fast, regardless of the keyboard used. Looking at the future in keyboarding, it seems as though the skill itself will become somewhat of a historical remedy if voice recognition software ever becomes a standard for computer users. Even now, word processors increase the speed of most typists to a degree that such a change in a keyboard configuration would make little difference. As long as expert typists can average about 100 words a minute with QWERTY keyboards, the future for an alternative standard is bleak in the business world. The benefit does not outweigh the cost of change at this moment in time. ...

The Development of Travel and Tourism On Mozambique Literature review

The Development of Travel and Tourism On Mozambique - Literature review Example In order to attain this end, the following objectives will be explored: This literature review critically evaluates and analyses elements and aspects of tourism development and how it can be applied to an African country – Mozambique. The study will critique various elements of the current situation of tourism which is steeped in mass tourism and provide an exegesis on the future development of tourism by integrating sustainable tourism and other approaches of tourism planning and development. Tourism is widely viewed as the movement of persons from their normal place of habitation to another place for a range of activities within a short period of time (Beaver, 2013). This include various activities like vacationing, leisure travel and business travel with the view of staying in a new environment and visiting places of interest (Varley, et al., 2013). Tourism provides some kind of leisure and relaxation to individuals in a given area. In the larger scope, tourism is a process through which local businesses in a tourist destination are likely to sell their products and services to persons from other countries (Wehrli, et al., 2013). This brings about some form of foreign exchange that can be used to develop a given nation or community. The differences in the way tourism benefits and revenues are distributed relates to the arrangements in the community or society. This difference is highly accentuated in relation to the tourism approach used in a community – whether there is a mass tourism system or an alternative tourism system. Sustainable tourism developed as a part of sustainable development which is a concept that examines the moderate and reasonable usage of the earth’s resources in order to ensure that future generations will also benefit from the earth’s resources (Miller & Twining-Ward, 2013; Pigram & Wahab, 2014; Pender & Sharpley, 2012).

Special Education part II Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Special Education part II - Essay Example Nonetheless, other health impairments is the sub category of AD/HD (Attention-deficit/Hyperactivity disorder) and DSM-IV defined the AD/HD as a â€Å"persistent pattern of inattention’ or ‘hyperactivity-impulsivity’ that is more often displayed and severe than is usually observed in individuals at a comparable level of deployment.† (Anonymous, 2008) So in simple words, Other Health Impairment is a class of disability that includes in the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) and it refers to the causes such as condition, disease, injury or disorder which substantially affects vitality, alertness or strength. When any of these causes make an impact on the educational life of a person, it gets into the other health impairment disability. 6.2. Causes of Health impairment Allergies e.g. Hepatitis Heredity e.g. Hemophilia Accidents e.g. seizure disorders Multiple factors e.g. Epilepsy Unknown 6.3. Definition: AD/HD is a common behavioral disorder wh ich effects on 8-10% of school age children as per the estimations. It is also reported the boys are three times more probable to be diagnosed with AD/HD compared to the girls. There are 3 defined types of AD/HD impairment types which are Hyperactive-Impulsive, Inattentive and Combined. Characteristics of Hyperactive-Impulsive students are as following: Hyperactive-Impulsive- Individuals who have symptoms of this type usually express hyperactivity differently. Hyperactive individuals (especially children) may run around in circles until they drop down with dizziness. Individuals having this category of disorder will find themselves in situations where they won’t be able to wait in lines, traffics and etc. Also, the common problem which is faced in these individuals is that they act without thinking and are hyperactive. Also, they find themselves having a hard time with focusing on even very easy tasks. Thus, it’s really difficult to handle these individuals and critica l situations and that’s why certain guidelines are made which should be followed to control them and get them to the path of betterment. 6.4. One day in life (Fictional Story) The school gate is so near now. It’s the gate of my school which other kids cross to learn new things in life whether they are about the academic life or the social life, schools are made to teach kids. For me, though it is a totally different place. When I walk through that door, my miseries start and don’t end before the time I leave the school for home. I am a kid with other health impairment. When somebody says something to me, I cannot hear it and reply right away. My mind responds in the normal way, but my hearing has deficiencies. When I hear something I quickly try to respond but I cannot speak in a normal speed. I talk slowly, and I can’t help me. I am not like other kids (as this is what people say, otherwise I think I am totally like them with normal height, physique and everything) so they make fun of me. They call me by different names which I can’t even tell as by even telling those words will hurt me just as much as they hurt me when I am being called all of that. Why I didn’t go to a special school? Because my parents thought I was normal, so did I think till I didn’t join my school and spend time there being a target for everybody’