Importance of Participation

This is a vital issue today that what is the purpose of electing the political parties to form the government. If we look the entire democratic process it completely gives the picture of non people oriented leadership establishments in political leadership, getting education, starting business doing any social services. The democracy's look is capitalist. Till we change this look and understand the democracy has given the first right to common people and that right is representative right and now we have to think how this right should be used by the common people to lead the society entering into the political institutions.The representative right is now used by the wealthy classes in our society and they able to build the political parties and in maximum cases they constituted the constitutional framework that gives the political parties to come in front of the common people through election commissions registration process. If we seriously look into the function of election commiss ion they should limit themselves to act for preparing the people's mandate giving programme and listing the voters, but they are doing some extra job given to them by the political leadership who want to remain in seat of power.The democracy is the rule of the common people first using the representative right from the constitution directly   and forming the political institutions to workd for the people. After five years the election commission make the arrange ment for asking people to vote to these institutions which has been formed directly taken the representative right through the constitutional provision to establish the people's leadership in the political institutions. We have to change the capitalist huge social money costly system in people oriented simple and meaningful process.Which could bring social unity among the world community and the capitalist people also feel for the society and remaining in the society and earning they mustnot ignore the social needs afteral l society is supporting them to get the profit  and taxes are not the only answer because taxes is to be collected to run the administration properly because present world social system, social centralised imagination is not thought about so every welfare programmes has been taken by the state and the result is that they unable to fulfill the people's desire.So change the democracy and  all political parties should correct the constitution of their country to include the people's commission provision to provide the people their first democratic right of The Representation   to form the political institutions in this way we can control the society and unite the people  for better purpose. Peace, security and prosperity would come through the social system  supported to political system.

The School Based Assessment

WRITING ASSIGNMENT Paragraph Outline Topic sentence: There are several benefits of the school based assessment to the learning process in school. Supporting point 1: The student achievement can be observed continuously. Supporting point 2: Able to reflect the standard and ability of students. Supporting point 3: Reinforce learner’s autonomy and independent learning. Conclusion: To sum up, the school based assessment is a new culture of learning and teaching that advocate students in all-round development which gives a more comprehensive picture of individual student learning needs.First Draft Recently, our school education system had been reform to the new system which is called the school based assessment. In order to improve our school education system, the government has taken this large step that also making the UPSR and PMR to be abolished. Besides that, it has many benefits to our school learning process compare to the older system. First and foremost, the achievement of the students can be observed continuously.The teachers can assess the students continuously in a pressure-free environment. The assessment is taken every day in the class session by several aspects. Next, it can reflect the standard and ability of the students. All students have the same chance of showing their ability . It avoid the limitations of judging students on their performance with a single examination. The school based assessment can also reinforce learner’s autonomy and independent learning.For instance, the student can carrying peer reviews and writing after a model in the assessment task. By this system, students cannot expect that teachers will give them all the information needed but they must think and find it from another resource. To conclude, the school based assessment is a new culture of learning and teaching that advocate students in all round development which gives a more comprehensive picture of individual student learning needs.

How can a home corner in Key Stage 1 engage childrens communication Essay - 1

How can a home corner in Key Stage 1 engage childrens communication - Essay Example Bell took a practical approach to qualitative observation techniques. I found this really helpful; this gave me a good insight on conducting observation. This also made me aware of how often one should be recording what is happening; she says you have to decide this beforehand. I also become aware of the importance of my spatial position when I’m observing. An observer can never pass entirely unnoticed; one will have to discuss this with whoever is in charge, claims Bell (2005: 189). This chapter has many tips on how to structure your recordings, how to take down field notes, analyse and interpret data as well as preparation is very important, as charts and seating plans have to be prepared. In my opinion this chapter is very relevant to my study; this will help me to successfully carry out my research because now I am quite aware of the possibility of the structured approach to be criticized as being subjective and biased. The chapter also gives ideas on the how important planning is, structured or unstructured observations, criticism of qualitative data, advantages and disadvantages, keeping records, more so your interest in this content, recording, system of categories. In my judgment it was carefully written. This chapter closes with emphasises on incomplete tasks. Observations that have taken place and records that have been made; for instance, if you were observing a meeting and at the end you felt it was inadequate, you would need to analyse the reasons. Furthermore it sums up the important parts that were mentioned in the chapter in a checklist structure. This chapter describes and explains the strong relationship between early years teaching and knowledge about child development. It declares that the relationship between early teaching practices and developmental research is currently an improved domain of

Organizational Change Interview Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Organizational Change Interview Paper - Essay Example Schuh (2000) has mentioned the needs of differentiation strategy for successful marketing. In his opinion, â€Å"using a common product, price, distribution and promotion program on a worldwide basis--does not seem adequate considering the differences in market conditions† (Schuh, 2000). In order to realize the extent of changes happening in the organizational world, I decided to interview a top official in Coca Cola Company. One of my friends is currently working in Coca Cola Company’s marketing department and he helped me in meeting, Jack Nicholas, one of the sales managers of Coca Cola Company. This paper is written based on my interview with Coke’s sales manager, jack Nicholas. My first question was about the mission, vision, and values of the Coca Cola Company at present and in past. Jack told me that the vision and mission of Coke has changed a lot over the past five years period. Earlier, Coke had a standardized vision and mission statement for the entire world. However, Coke realized that keeping same vision and mission for the entire world is meaningless since the requirements of different regions or countries are different. Focus on needs of our consumers, customers and franchise partners, Get out into the market and listen, observe and learn, Possess a world view, Focus on execution in the marketplace every day, Be insatiably curious etc are some of the values strictly kept in the market by Coke (Vision, Mission and Values, 2011) Jack explained the above point more in detail. He told me that most of the global countries and regions are different, politically, economically, culturally and socially. In other words, the requirements and the purchasing abilities of the people are different everywhere and it is illogical to keep same mission and vision for the extremely diverse population in the world. It was difficult for Coke to operate in communist countries earlier because of the strong opposition Coke faced in those countries bec ause of its origin in America. For example, China was reluctant in allowing American companies to enter its soil earlier. However, at present China is accepting foreign direct investments with both hands. The above changing foreign policies and economic policies of China cannot be neglected by Coke. In short, political and economic climate in the world are facing drastic changes at present which forced companies to change their vision and mission to cater the needs of the changing world. My second question was about the major determinants of change in Coca Cola Company. Globalization was the major cause of changes happening in Coke according to Jack. He has told me that the business principles changed a lot as a result of globalization. Currently Coke is trying to expand its territories with the help of modern business principles and merger and acquisition is accepted as the major mode of entry to foreign countries. For example, Coke acquired ThumsUp from India as part of their busi ness expansion in India. Coke realized that local knowledge is essential for conducting successful business in a foreign market. In order to acquire local knowledge, acquisition or merger is accepted as the best strategy by Coke. Political, economic and legal climate are other major determinants of change accepted by Coke to expand its business in different territories. Jack

The peacekeeping mission of the united nations in Democratic Republic Research Paper

The peacekeeping mission of the united nations in Democratic Republic of Congo and Rwanda - Research Paper Example Democratic Republic of Congo is a large country. It is also the home for the prestigious rain forest, rare species of the world and valuable minerals as well as natural resources. However, Congo is one of the poorest countries and most chaotic on the planet. The unrest in the country is estimated to have claimed lives of millions in the past decade (Mays 11). The country lacks necessities like electricity, medical facilities, law, and order in most of its parts. Mass rape and human brutality have been a common phenomenon in these parts of the country. In the first year after of independence of the Democratic Republic of Congo, Mobutu Sese Seko seized the country and declared himself as the president (Youtube). He ruled the country for five years. Several events occurred in the country that led to the deterioration of Mobutu’s government. First, the army of the country mutinied, the governor of Katanga attempted a coup, and the prime minister of the country died (Sitkwoski 87). All these events led to the United Nations peacekeeping mission respond to restore order in the country. When Kabila took over as the president, he tried reforms that saw a relative peace prevail in the country for about two years. Kabila was, however, weakened by domestic protests, international critics of his poor tyrannical governance and the poor economic drive of the country (Mays 12). The soldiers and the military defense of the country deployed and rioted to protest against the poor leadership of Kabila. Kabila, instead, enforced his rule in a dictatorial way, a process that led to a sharp schism of the country into three segments. One of his bodyguards allegedly assassinated him and the act led to the incision of the United Nations militia force into the country (Tull 18). Upon its establishment, the United Nations organization authorized deployment of military liaison from all other

Communication Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 3

Communication - Essay Example Interpersonal communication entails the process of using feelings, ideas, and thoughts to initiate and develop relationships with other members of the society. Initiating and developing relationships follow three systematic stages. The first stage involves understanding another person’s situation. This enables us to understand the context and perspective from which the other person is speaking. The next step involves responding to the message in an appropriate manner. This entails employing the right tone and emotional expression based on the understanding of the person communicating (Wood 72). After communicating the response in the right manner, the respondent should be able to achieve the objective of communicating. This entails the establishment of a common understanding between the subject parties. Good interpersonal communication skills help in conflict resolution contexts. Interpersonal conflicts arise when people reaches a disagreement over their convictions, beliefs, ideas and desires. Interpersonal conflict can present serious consequences to the parties involved. Therefore, the best solution on resolving a conflict is by employing effective interpersonal communication skills. In reality, conflict leads to emotional stress, hurting feelings and situational disappointments. When any conflict is handled in an unhealthy way, it might result in irreparable damages in social relationships. Therefore, the best method of resolving any conflict is applying some ethical principles while striving to reach a compromise. One of the essential ethical elements during conflict resolution is empathy. Empathy entails putting oneself into another person’s shoes. Thought empathy allows one to understand what another person is saying. Feeling empathy allows someone to acknowledge how another person feels. Therefore, empathy facilitates healthy communication when resolving a conflict. The other ethical element is exploration. Exploration allows one to enquir e thoroughly on the other person’s thoughts and feelings. Stroking is also essential during conflict cases. Stroking involves complimenting the person by making respectful and positive opinions about him/her. To resolve a conflict successfully, I align myself to these three ethical aspects, which are empathy, exploration, and stroking. The definition of gender roles and other aspects associated with gender and society depends on an individual’s social background. The beliefs and convictions held by an individual concerning the social roles expected from different genders influences social relationships to a substantial extent. On my part, I expect females to be submissive, and accommodative to different ideas and situations. The other factor that may affect my communication is ethnicity. Ethnicity brings about prejudice and discrimination within the society. Discrimination entails behaviors directed towards people from a different ethnic background while prejudice invo lves holding irrational and inflexible attitudes towards members of another ethnic group. Prejudice influences communication whereby negative prejudice results in discrimination. Therefore, ethnicity might affect my judgments and decisions during communication in a positive or a negative way. The other factor than influences communication is culture. Culture is comprised of behaviors, beliefs and other social characteristics that define a particular social group. Though people would like to define themselves individually, the society conforms an individual to some set standards of beliefs, values and behavioral norms. These inbred cultural principles in an individual influence his/her relationship with people within a culturally diverse environment. As a

All The Pretty Horses by Cormac Mc Carthy Research Paper

All The Pretty Horses by Cormac Mc Carthy - Research Paper Example The setting is in 1949 when the story starts with a funeral. It was the funeral of Grady’s grandfather, the owner of the ranch that their family was living on. With his grandfather dead, Grady’s mother who is an actress, will have to sell the ranch. Realizing that there was nothing for him in Texas anymore since he loves the ranch and the lifestyle it provides, he leaves Texas for Mexico. He brought along his friend Rawlins with him. Together, they ride to Mexico as idealized cowboys on horseback. On the road, another character by the name of Blevins joins them. Blevins is thirteen years old and he rides a beautiful horse. Rawlins immediately dislikes him but they still continue the journey on together. They reach the Rio Grande and upon crossing the river reaches Mexico. In Mexico, they encounter a terrible storm. Blevins, being very fearful, strips all his clothes (as a precaution against lightning strikes), and runs off, leaving his horse and all of his belongings. The next day, they find him almost naked. Blevins convinces Grady and Rawlins to find a town and look for his horse and his gun, which were stolen during the height of his panic attack. Soon enough, on the village of Encantada, they find Blevins’ horse but then it was already claimed by someone else. Blevins takes it back and the locals pursue them. In the pursuit, they got separated. Grady and Rawlins eventually moves South where they were able to find jobs as cowboys in a ranch owned by a certain Don Hector. Because of his own experience in their own ranch, Grady soon became famous in Don Hector’s ranch as the new cowboy. He proves himself to be a very good one, as he deeply understands horses. Because of his expertise, he was put in charge of the breeding of the horses. Then, he meets Alejandra, Don Hector’s daughter and he falls for her. Although he was warned by Alejandra’s cynical aunt, Alfonsa, Grady pursues Alejandra and then they began an affair. When Don Hector found out about it, he had the Americans arrested by the corrupt Encantada police. There in Encantada jail cell, they reunite with Blevins again. They soon find that Blevins killed someone when he returned to Encantada to retrieve his stolen gun. Grady and Rawlins were now labeled as co-conspirators in Blevins’ case. Then, because he was tortured, Rawlins owns up to the accusations, and this leads to Blevins’ assassination. Grady and Rawlins remains imprisoned in the town called Saltillo. In prison they experience constant bullying by the prison mafia. It happens that a cuchillero attacks Grady as he refuses the invitation of Perez. Perez is a powerful prisoner who wants Grady to be his ally. John Grady eventually kills his assailant. He and Rawlins get ba dly wounded in the process. Alfonsa, Alejandra’s aunt, bribes the prison commander to release Grady and Rawlins and they were eventually released. Alfonsa made Grady swear that he should never see Alejandra again. With his newfound liberty, Rawlins goes back to America. Grady, however, was so intent to see and go back to Alejandra. Alfonsa again warns Grady not to pursue Alejandra and sets out a long discussion about the pitfalls of romance and its foolishness. In spite of all the discouragement, he meets Alejandra and they spend the whole day together. Grady proposes marriage to Alejandra but Alejandra declines because she already decided that she couldn’t leave her family, thus leaving Grady with a broken heart. Grady decides to go back to America but not without his horses. So he goes back to the village of Encantada and reclaims the horses, all the while claiming the captain of the town as hostage. The people pursue him but eventually crosses the border heavily wou nded. He finds himself back in

International Trade - World Trade Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

International Trade - World Trade - Essay Example The first factor, the rapid advancement in information technology, which linked nations through its borderless information highways through its continuing advances and dynamism, played an important role in bridging the gap in the international trade system, primarily in the standardization of the import and export trade, in the implementation of international payment system, and in the effective use of B2B processes for most of the essential operations of the trade such as custom declaration and billing. The internet effectively made possible the electronic payment system, thus facilitating convenient and reliable international payment transactions using credit card. Other logistic processes have also been efficiently facilitated through the internet. With this convenience, many key players in world trade were encouraged to join, as well as new entrants found ease in joining the trade. Second factor has been the reduction or, in some parts of the world, elimination, of trade barriers such as tariffs. This had been attributed as a result of the series of trade negotiations on tariff reductions, as brought about by the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). This factor has been regarded as one of the most significant among those that contributed to the increase in international trade during the period 1955 - 2004. Tariff, which is basically the tax levied on goods crossing national boundaries, when reduced or eliminated, encourage traders across the globe, thus a more vigorous exchange of goods and commodities among countries. The third factor that may have contributed to such trade increase was the significant decline in international transportation costs (Hummels, D., 2007). This can be seen through historical evidences prepared by economic hirtorians and experts. For instance, sufficient documentation of the significant reductions in shipping costs from 1850 - 1913 are available (Harley, 1980, 1988, 1989; North, 1958, 1968; Mohammed and Williamson, 2004; as cited by Hummels, D., 2001). Further, reliable econometric evidences have subsequently connected the decline in shipping costs with the rapid trade growth within the first era of globalization (Estevadeordal et al, 2003 as cited by Hummels, D., 2007). Technological advances in transportation decades after World War II, like the development of jet aircraft engines and the adoption of the use of containers in ocean shipping, have also significant effect on this. Air shipping grew rapidly during this period due to rising demand and more advanced techno logies that it adopted. Likewise, the ocean shipping industry had similar trend, but grew more through the economies of scale as a critical result of the growing trade among nations. New ports have been opened, and new industry entrants provided a dynamic interaction within the industry. Last factor I would mention here would be the rising cost of income during that period. With the critical inputs contributing to the increase in trade during the period, subsequent effects have gone down to the consumers as well. For instance, the reduction of prices of consumer goods due to decreased tariffs as well as shipping costs

Pain management of central chest pain of patients in the Emergency Essay

Pain management of central chest pain of patients in the Emergency department - Essay Example This means these groups of patients need special support from the nursing professionals and measures to relieve these pains as soon as possible, at least in order to decrease these feelings. In order to be able to handle and manage these cases appropriately in the Emergency Department setting the nurses must be able to critically analyse the signs and symptoms of these patients on presentation. It is also expected that the nursing staff must be able to assess these patients in a structured manner in the least possible time frame since the risks associated with adult patients presenting with chest pain may be enormous. In some cases rapid and timely institution of interventions may impact the outcomes of care very favourably, while failure to stratify these risks and to appropriately assess these patients may lead to a defective and ineffective care plan leading to serious morbidity and mortality. In fact current research evidence suggests that nurses should be trained to acquire skil ls in appropriately assessing a patient and then reaching a provisional diagnosis that can be ruled out or supported by point of care protocols such as C-Troponin, CK-MB, and Pro-BNP so legitimate care may be instituted at the earliest. In this assignment, a problem-solving approach will be elicited in the context if emergency nursing care delivered to a group of patients with central chest pain during a recent placement of this writer, where nursing skills of assessment, planning, implementation, evaluation and documentation of care will be demonstrated (Hamer and McCallin, 2006). Moreover this account will also demonstrate how critical the nursing communication skill becomes in delivering an effective, standard, and competent care to these patients while working independently or through interprofessional collaboration. Throughout this assignment, there will be demonstration of the process of nursing diagnosis and management

How different size of firms using financial hedging techniques such as Literature review

How different size of firms using financial hedging techniques such as Forwards, Futures, Options and Swaps to manage currency risk - Literature review Example The topic mainly emphasizes on the hedging techniques that is required for managing the risk. While conducting international trade operations it has been observed that foreign exchange plays an important and significant role. The techniques of hedging generally facilitates the firms that are active in the international market to reduce or minimize the exposure towards the variation in the foreign exchange rate which could adversely and severely affect the value of the asset and profit margin of the business. With the presence and the existence of the derivative market it facilitates and assists the business in management of risk, arbitration and speculation in the derivative as well as the spot market. The topic also emphasizes or deals with the various financial instruments such as the foreign currency debt and the derivative related to foreign exchange which helps in neutralizing the risk and the topic also highlights the various benefits and limitations of the management strategie s of the various exchange rate risks. The author Cowan in his study has emphasized on hedging the financial risk that is mainly faced by the large or the multinational companies is by hedging its risk by the financial product forward. The multinational companies generally prefer hedging through the foreign currency loans and the operational hedging. The forward contract is mainly arranged and dealt by explaining and customizing the agreement or the deal that is carried out between the parties for fixing and determining the exchange rate for carrying out the transaction in future. The arrangement is conducted in such a way that it will eliminate the risk related to foreign exchange. There are also disadvantages related to hedging with forward contract which is related or associated with fixing the amount at a future rate. Entering into the forward agreement or contract can be explained as the method of transferring or passing of the risk

Dieting Makes People Become Fat Essay Example for Free

Dieting Makes People Become Fat Essay According to National Institute of health (NIH) over 30 % of the U. S adults population is obese a person who has an excessive amount of fat tissue- and numerous risks factors are associated such as hypertension, type 2 diabetes, coronary heart disease, and high cholesterol. Reversing this trend on obesity is a national concern and the institute suggests several solutions to curb this issue such as encouraging people to follow a diet. On contrary to NIHs suggestion the subject on hand claims Dieting makes people fat ; the reason why the claim needs to be examined closely. I strongly believe the claim is questionable and I will demonstrate why choosing the suitable diet decreases fat in human body. Before going any further, lets define dieting. Dieting it this context is choosing a specific food that helps to lose weight and to burn fat. If the dieting is the choice of food that has less fat or brings less calories than what one needs, how will that make people fat? Some diets have scientifically substantiated facts of making people lose weight. The Weight Watchers diet for example is proved to be very successful in an article written by ECoseed. The research conducted both in the U. S and in the U. K. ( ECoseed, 2011) investigated the weight loss progress of 740 obese study participants who were practicing a variety of dieting techniques including Weight Watchers, Slimming World, Rosemary Conley, a group-based dietetics program, one to one counseling with a GP and one to one counseling at a pharmacy. After 12 weeks of following the diets or medical advice, all groups had seen results of weight loss, but it varied from a loss of 4. 4kg for the Weight Watchers dieters to 1. 4kg for those adhering to GP advice. This research clearly demonstrates that diet help people to burn fat instead of building it. Another example of dieting that has proven to be very effective in losing weight is the vegetarian diet. A scientific review published in April 2006 Nutrition Reviews shows that a vegetarian diet is highly effective for weight loss. The review even stressed that Vegetarian populations tend to be slimmer than meat-eaters and compiled data from 87 previous studies where the weight-loss effect does not depend on exercise or calorie-counting, and occurs at a rate of approximately 1 pound per week. In the same way , Sabate J and Wien M state that epidemiologic studies indicate that vegetarian diets are associated with a lower body mass index (BMI) and a lower prevalence of obesity in adults and children. The review suggests that plant based diet is a sensible method to prevent obesity in children ( Sabate J, Wein M 2010). Once again, this is a vivid example of how dieting brings successful results in burning fats. Some people may say the problem of dieting is the compliance to the directives and restrictions are often too hard for people to follow and ultimately some of them may fall back into their old eating habits which make them gain weight again. That can be true in some cases. Of course more than thousands of diets exist, their guidelines vary considerably as well as the eating habits of people; therefore each one of them doesnt work for everybody. Studies show that once a diet offers flexibility to people to follow but focuses on burning the amount of calories more the amount taken in the same period of time, it works successfully by enhancing the compliance of followers. For instance during the study, EcoSeed, compared the effectiveness of four weight diet programs including Weight Watcher program and 2 types of counseling. Weight Watcher program was found to be the most effective due to its flexibility and because it allows people to eat what they want in a day as long as they do not exceed their daily point allowance ( EcoSeed, 2011). Also a diet when it is customized to ones physical and physiological states as well as his expectations is likely to succeed. A diet that works with a woman who is willing to lose weight to become skinny is not the same as the one that a man who is willing to lose fat and build muscles should follow. Therefore diets really work when it is really tailored to each followers reality. Several dieting program proved their success through scientific evaluation and that contradicts the statement Dieting makes people fat. Though, dieting is not an easy behavior to follow and one can regain weight once he is no longer compliant to the recommendations. However, there is still a way to succeed in burning fat that is a careful choice of the specific diet that matches the habits and ensures a compliance in a long run.

The Importance Of Agriculture In Developing Countries Economics Essay

The Importance Of Agriculture In Developing Countries Economics Essay Agriculture always plays an essential role in the economy of every country. Not only because of it tends to provide foods for the entire population of a country but agriculture helps to connects and interacts with all the related industries of that country. A country is usually believed to be a social, political and economically stable nation if the agricultural sector is very stable. However, people in developing countries who are depend on agriculture for their living are always much poorer than those who work in other sectors of the economy. And generally those who involve in agriculture sector are always represents a significant share of the total number of poor people in the countries where they live. Hence, there is a need to improve agriculture industry. It is important to improve agriculture sector because it create job opportunities for its citizens. Agriculture is known as the backbone of the developing countries. It accounts for between 30 to 60 percent of the total GDP and employs about 70 percent of the total workers. Apparently, this are a huge amount of peoples involves in agriculture industry if compared to any other sectors in developing countries. In other words, agricultural sector is the major source of employment in most of the developing countries. This is because the owner of the farm usually found that it is necessary to hire additional hands for the purpose to cultivate the lands successfully and to look after the livestock. However, the increase of job opportunities is not only on farms but also in processing, advertising and packaging the agriculture product. Thus, if the agriculture sector is improving, it will definitely benefit the developing countries by decreasing its unemployment rate. Not only that, agriculture sector helps to fully utilize the unused land in developing countries. The expansion of agriculture output caused abundant supply of unused land to be brought under cultivation. However, in most of the African countries such as Mozambique, Tanzania and Zambia, there are only 12 percent of arable land is actually been cultivated. The African Union (AU) has appealed to the governments to allocate 10 percent of their total spending to agriculture, but unfortunately only four or five countries have successfully reach that target. Obviously, developing countries do not have enough money to develop the unused land. It is a waste for just leave a huge area of arable land empty without any plantation. Thus, the offer by foreign investors to develop agricultural land is very attractive to developing countries. Based on the standard of the one-dollar-a-day threshold, there are 1.2 billion poor people in developing countries. And among these peoples, there are 780 million of them facing chronic hunger, which means that their daily intake of calories is not enough for them to live healthy and productive lives. Besides, there are millions more suffer from specific nutritional insufficiency of one form or another. Most of the worlds hungry live in countries which are categorized as low-income and food-deficit nation. They are located mainly in the developing world and more than half of them are in Africa. These countries do not produce enough food to meet the demand of the citizens and they may not have enough foreign exchange to replace the shortfall by purchasing foods on the international market. This kind of situation getting serious especially when they are facing with loss of crops and livestock that caused by natural disaster or extremely high food prices on the international market. In order to feed people better, agriculture must strengthen its conservation goals by adding assortment to the food chain and by restoring the ecosystems. Agriculture sector can reduce hunger as it ensures the food security of developing countries. The drive toward food security has seems to be slowed in recent years. The growth rate of agricultural production is declining, the world grain reserves have shrink to record lows, the commitments of aid to agricultural development have decreased as well and thus it boosting the demand for imported grain. This obviously opposed to the current situation of developing countries because their population is expanding. Food production is directly related to the daily life of human being. Food security is an immediate and future main concern for all developing countries. A stable agricultural industry plays an important role to ensure the food security of a country. Food security is considered as one of the basic requirements of any nation. None of the nation that consists of huge amount of hungry people can grow efficiently with a stable agricultural base because hungry people can do nothing towa rds helping to develop their country. Food security prevents starvation which often been considered as one of the serious problems that being faced by the small developing countries. Furthermore, agriculture also ensures economic growth of developing countries. Agriculture is a fundamental source of income for developing nation that exists on this globe. Not only because of it provides food for our daily life, but mostly all the industries in the country depend on agriculture both directly and indirectly. The high rates of economic growth are basically linked with the rapid expansion of agricultural output. In fact, the economy of several West African countries is primarily maintained by agriculture sector. Most of them depend on agriculture for their export trade to boost the incomes of the country. Agricultural products are their main foreign exchange earner which contributes about 75 percent of their total export commodities. The exports of agriculture products create additional economic activity that ripples through the domestic economy. Besides, agriculture contributes between 40 to 60 percent of the total GDP of most of the African countries. In conclusion, it is crucial to develop the agriculture sector not only in the developing countries but every country in the globe. A very low GDP and widespread chronic under nutrition are generally because of the underdeveloped of agriculture sector. Citizens cannot get enough their basic needs for their daily life. Therefore, economic progress in the agricultural industry is very important to boosting the incomes and increasing food supplies of the poor. Agricultural sector can only be further develop if and only if everyone in the society willing to take the responsibility to sustain a society that have sufficient food supply for our future generation. This is an issue that related to the whole society and efficient action must to be taken from now on.

The Domestication Of Wild Animals History Essay

The Domestication Of Wild Animals History Essay The Fertile Crescent has been called the Cradle of Civilization for many years. The Cradle of Civilization is the key to understanding when the human population began to thrive and create villages, cities, and ultimately states. Without the domestication and cultivation of the land there would have never been enough food to support such a dense population of people. Hunting and collecting entirely from the wild could not possibly support even a tiny fraction of the worlds current population (Bellwood, 1). There were seven core domesticates in the Fertile Crescent, they include sheep, goats, pigs, cattle, emmer wheat, einkorn wheat and barley. All of these species were domesticated and had an important role in the Fertile Crescent throughout the two millennia emergence of agrarian societies between 10000 and 8000 B.P. We can best understand the events of this period by first focusing on the developmental history of the individual species of animals and plants that were brought under d omestication, and then combining those individual histories into the more complex overall story in the emergence of the agriculture in the region (Smith, 51). However due to the confines of this paper we will take an in depth look at the animals domesticated in the Fertile Crescent. The story of the Fertile Crescent starts before the emergence of the hunter- gatherers, who were ravaging the forests and grass lands. By 10000 B.P. the beginning of the 2000 year period that would witness the development of agriculture, human societies had taken advantage of the post-Pleistocene proliferation of plant and animal resources, and the Fertile Crescent was inhabited by a diverse array of hunter-gatherer societies (Smith, 51). The Pleistocene era had ended with a much warmer climate that also brought a much moister climate to the area. This climate change was one that favored the wild annual cereal grasses (Sagan, 249). Also it allowed the sparse movement of hunter-gatherer groups to move in to the area. It was there that they discovered that a more sedentary lifestyle produced more of a surplus of food and then that of foraging. The Fertile Crescents environmental zones are keys to understanding the development of the domestications of the animals (and plants). There are three main environmental zones involved in the origin of cultivation in the Fertile Crescent. The eastern section of which comprises the foothills and margins of the Zagros Mountains (Maisels 133). The central or the north is mostly made up of the broad rolling grasslands. And lastly, the western section whose central axis is the important Levantine corridor and Jordan Valley (Smith, 51). There were many changes that occurred due to the domestication of animals (and plants). These changes were many times become genetic due to the consistent selection of the more adequately produced products. In wild grains, the axis or rachis is brittle, which allows the grain to reseed itself easily. Selection of the grains was at first an accidental by-product of harvesting, and later intentionally, the people selected grains in which the axis was tougher, allowing less grain to fall to the ground, thus raising yields (Sagan 247). They also selected plants that were more easily husked. The people used the same natural selection process when choosing livestock. They selected woolly animals from among wild sheep, which are not normally woolly, thus acquiring sheep better suited to lowland heat and from which to obtain wool. Fossil remains indicate that the domestication of the sheep and goat was accompanied by a decrease in the size of the animal. The animals domesticated in the Fertile Crescent were a key to the development of the humans in the area. The readily available source of meat aided in the functions of the brain, which led to the ability to think more complexly and creatively. The brain is fueled by protein therefore with more protein in the diet the mind began to develop more completely. Thus the importance of the domestication of the animals to the human race, without having to hunt for the meat they were getting a more readily available source of protein (Wilkinson 139). The Persian wild goat has been recognized as the ancestor to the first domesticated goat. The Persian wild goat tends to be found in the more rugged terrain. It is in the eastern section of the Fertile Crescent that we find the most evidence of goats being hunted for their meat. Specifically at the site of Ganj Dareh, which was excavated in 1970s, which found at the lowest level, which dates back to 9000 B.P. contained approximately 5000 identifiable goat bones (Old Goats). Brian Hesse of the University of Alabama at Birmingham studied these bones. He used a new analytical technique to try to piece together evidence of the domestication of goats. Hesse theorized that a domesticated herd should have two clear distinguishing characteristics: (1) a large percentage of animals slaughtered for meat late in their immaturity, when they had attained much of their adult size; (2) an adult breeding population in which females far outnumbered males (Smith, 60). Through complex measurements of t he bones discovered at Ganj Dareh, Hesse discovered that the males were being killed before they reached adult hood and the females overwhelmingly stood for most of the population. This stunning breakthrough specifies that an age and sex profile that closely agrees with that of a herd of domesticated goats managed to provide meat (Old Goats). Clear demographic evidence appears to indicate that goats were domesticated at Ganj Dareh as early as 9000 years ago. The increase of the proportions of goat bones among the animal remains is an indicator to the shift to goat herding. Wild Sheep were the second animal to be domesticated in the Fertile Crescent. The wild ancestor of domesticated sheep ranged throughout much of the Fertile Crescent. A large amount of evidence of wild sheep can be found in the central region (Sagon, 245). There is much data to indicate that the wild sheep was not an important prey in the areas of Levant. There is, however, evidence showing that the sheep were a prey in Jericho that date wild sheep back to 10000 to 9500 years ago (Wilkinson 149). The degree to which the hunter-gatherer societies in different parts of the Fertile Crescent relied on wild sheep for food parallels the animals abundance in their local environments 10000 to 8000 years ago. The wild sheep were most were most abundantly discovered in the central region. This is probably why around 8500 B.P. sheep were first domesticated in the central area of the Fertile Crescent. There, the land is better suited to the wild sheep thus they were a more common target for hunte rs in that area, leading to the domestication of the sheep. With the change from being wild to being domesticated, the sheep, according to the fossil record, got smaller due to the selection process of the humans tending to the animals. It is in the apex of the Fertile Crescent that sheep herding first became an important component of agricultural economies (Smith, 57). The pig was, as far as we know the third animal to be domesticated. Wild pigs were greatly hunted in the northern part of the central region. Facts have lead archeologist to date the bones of the wild pigs to 9000 B.P. The pigs continued to be a substantial part of the diet of the people in this northern area of the Fertile Crescent, even after the shift to the herding of sheep and goats (Sagan, 243). The site of Cayà ¶nà ¼ tends to be the marker for the earliest domesticated pig, in the vicinity of 8500 years ago. There have been some tentative theories that approximate the domestication of pigs to be closer to the date of 10000 B.P. (Smith, 67). It is Richard Redding who proposed this theory, which the bones of the pigs at Hallan Cemi, strongly represent the ages of bones of a possible herding community of pigs. However since we know nothing about the ages of the pigs that the hunters targeted we have no basis for making the claim that the pigs at Hallan Cemi were indeed domestic ated and herded. For now it remains unverified but the alluring prospect that pigs were domesticated much before the evidence now shows. Cattle were probably the last and least important of the four main animals that were domesticated in the Fertile Crescent. The ancestors of domesticate cattle were probably considered to be a dangerous pay due to the size of the animal. However, it was also a significantly large package of meat. The area in the Levant and Jordan Valley has dated wild cattle bones to approximately 9000 to 8000 years ago. Like the pigs the cattle had an exceptionally large geographical range and extended far beyond the Fertile Crescent. There has been clear documentation of a pattern that shows the reduction of size in the cattle between 8000 and 7000 B.P. While cattle may show to be of little importance to the region between 10000 and 8000 B.P. it later became the dominant species of the market (Smith, 56). Now that we have looked at the individual histories of the animals of four of the seven core domesticates of the Fertile Crescent we see many patterns are emerging. The four species share common lines of evidence that include; geographical range, increase in abundance, reduction in size and change in age/sex profiles (Smith, 67). This evidence has led to the indication that these histories were distinct and still follows the same indication of domestication. The goats were domesticated in the earliest portion of the period, at around 9000 B.P. Then the sheep, pigs and cattle soon followed after approximately 300 years after the domestication of the goats. After the domestication of animals (and plants) the small villages began becoming states, they were becoming more and more like a modern day civilization. The early stages of food production in the Middle East were marked by gradual transition from foraging to producing economies. Many changes were caused by the production and cultivation of food. Such changes include population increase, which caused the resulting migration and forced other areas to respond and begin their own cultivation of their resources. Also, there had been a gradual population increase; this was based on the native richness of the environment, which helped spur the spread of food production (Maisels, 140). On the other hand, in the Tigris-Euphrates alluvial plain, cultivation required irrigation, which began around 7000 B.P. and changed the world of farming. Irrigation allowed farming to spread away from the normal areas that were close to the riverbanks, by bringing the water away from the riverbanks the cult ivation began to strive. By 6000 B.P., irrigation systems had become far larger and more complex, and were associated with a new political system. This new establishment was based on central government, extreme contrasts of wealth, and social classes, the beginnings of the state (Wilkinson, 141). The written and archaeological record indicates that the early Mesopotamian states were city states (Sumer and Elam), ruled by a literate theocracy that managed virtually all major aspects of the economy, which was overwhelmingly agrarian. The theocracy was replaced by 4,500 B.P.; it was replaced by a secular, military monarchy, based upon an elaborate class system (Sagon, 300). Thus ended the revolution of modern humans in the world of cultivation we now knew use the animals (and plants) to our advantage. As time continues to slip by we find more and more ways to maximize the products we get from the domestication of animals (and cultivation of plants) (Sagan, 248). To sum everything up Southwest Asia was inhabited by small groups of hunter-gatherers. These groups, due to the climatic change, became more and more sedentary and begin to develop a source of food production. This production of food came from the domestication and cultivation of plants and animals. The herded animals provided a constant source of protein in their diet and allowed for the hunters to expend their energy in other areas of life. The cultivation of the plants allows for a reliable supply of grains in their diet. This made the people of this time able to support larger families, which turned into villages, cities, and ultimately states.

Inherit The Wind Essay -- essays research papers

Brady and Drummond, two former partners, beginning their legal lives working together. Now each one strives to be superior, confident in their ways and beliefs, trying to out-do the other. Despite a common goal, the two gradually became very different people, as is evident in the play and movie,Inherit the Wind. Throughout the years, as each one fought cases, established a name for themselves, and gained popularity (or notoriety), they kept a careful watch on the other. Learning of the others triumphs, which pushed them to try even harder, become more set in their ways, believing that their heterogeneous beliefs were right, and that if they kept those beliefs the focus of their existence, they could eventually prove themselves the victor. Yet the two had never met head-on in court. They both knew that until so, everything they did, every case they fought and one, would only be a form of practice, and a silent taunt at their foe. But until they truly fought together in court, this two man war would never be over. Thus, when the time finally arrived, when the two ingenious legal warriors who had trained together met at last for that one final battle to the death, they entered Hillsboro planning to put every single legal idea and tactic they had used and believed in over the years to work, believing that they had followed the correct path and that their long thought over battle plan was superior to the other’s. Brady loved the public. He knew that, even before the time of radio and television, if he controlled the media, he controlled the masses. Thus, his first move every time was to choose the side which the public sided with, knowing that people listened to what they wanted to hear, which would be him, so he would essentially become the media. And thus, he would create a flock of loyal followers. And with the public behind him, a case was usually much simpler. Besides, he loved being adored by people. He relied upon public approval and easy answers for legal guidance, as was evident when, upon hearing some of his former admirers turn to Drummond’s side, he broke down in tears. He enjoyed using the people as a weapon. Upon hearing the news of Drummond being appointed as the defense, he quickly realized a chance to gain the upper hand in the battle he had been preparing for his entire life. Before the townspeople had even met Drummond, he... ...portant battle for free speech, and man’s right to think. Brady, on the other hand, when faced with the revival of his seemingly unstoppable foe and a major setback for which he had not planned, instead of handling it in a sophisticated manner, as Drummond did, fell to pieces. He became flustered and began looking for pity in what was left of his flock of ignorant followers upon seeing part of his legal empire crumble and collapse. As he scrambled to pick up the pieces, he lost more and more until he was left with only a shred of his former greatness. Even after he had been declared the winner (though he knew that, in reality, Drummond had been the one who truly emerged victorious from this brawl of words and law), he fought to regain his once loyal group of admirers, as he watched many of them walking out of the courtroom door, their backs turned upon him. He screamed over the din, trying to regain something, anything, he once had. And all this only took from him the one thing he still had left... the steady beating of a human heart. And Drummond, Bible and Darwin in hand, was the only one of the two extremely different ex-partners to walk out of the courtroom that day.

Essay example --

WGSS 514 Final: Conference paper Ching Chih Tseng Vanishing voice: The culture of indigenous people in Taiwan Today, I am going to tell a story, the story of indigenous people in Taiwan. First, I would like to introduce the background of Taiwan. In 1590, the Portuguese explored Taiwan and named ‘Formosa’ which means beautiful island. Now, people called Taiwan, or the officially name the Republic of China is my country. Taiwan has total area around fourteen thousand square miles. We have twenty three million three hundred forty thousand population. Who live in the beautiful island? Today, 98% of Taiwanese are descendants of a mixture of Han Chinese people which includes 70% Hoklo people, 14% Hakka people, and 14% Mainlanders. While 2% are indigenous people. Taiwan indigenous people have lived on this island for perhaps 8,000 years. They are Austronesian-speaking people. Some anthropologists even believe the Austronesian people originated in Taiwan. After the founding of the Republic of China in 1911, the Nationalist government instituted the National Language Movement (NLM); a mass effort to standardize and propagate the National was selected as the supra-dialectal norm. In 1916 the Ministry of Education authorized a system for transcribing alphabets which was renamed the National Phonetic Symbols (NSP) in 1930. Moreover, Taiwan government arbitrary classified the indigenous people as savage people for over fifty years. Finally, the indigenous people lunched the aboriginal movement in 1984 was aimed at fighting for identity and the protection of rights. After almost a decade of the fighting movement, Taiwanese indigenous people finally changed their identity from savage people to the official name ‘indigenous’ people. Now, Tai... ...ginal indigenous name is Abi. Amis people also called each other ‘Pangcah’, in our language, ‘Pangcah’ means people or same tribe. Amis has another meaning which is north, because Amis people live on the northern part of my country. I wish and hope that our voice, our unique culture can be heard and be seen by my country and the rest of the world. Where is the social justice for the indigenous who live in Taiwan? We have fourteen different indigenous tribes in Taiwan; each tribe has their own language and traditional culture which is unique and beautiful. It is sad to consider that one day the indigenous cultures may disappear from Taiwan society. The lift of martial law in 1987 marked a new era for a multi-culture and multi-lingual society in Taiwan. with this political change and worldwide multiculturalism, people stared to view dialects from a new perspective. Essay example -- WGSS 514 Final: Conference paper Ching Chih Tseng Vanishing voice: The culture of indigenous people in Taiwan Today, I am going to tell a story, the story of indigenous people in Taiwan. First, I would like to introduce the background of Taiwan. In 1590, the Portuguese explored Taiwan and named ‘Formosa’ which means beautiful island. Now, people called Taiwan, or the officially name the Republic of China is my country. Taiwan has total area around fourteen thousand square miles. We have twenty three million three hundred forty thousand population. Who live in the beautiful island? Today, 98% of Taiwanese are descendants of a mixture of Han Chinese people which includes 70% Hoklo people, 14% Hakka people, and 14% Mainlanders. While 2% are indigenous people. Taiwan indigenous people have lived on this island for perhaps 8,000 years. They are Austronesian-speaking people. Some anthropologists even believe the Austronesian people originated in Taiwan. After the founding of the Republic of China in 1911, the Nationalist government instituted the National Language Movement (NLM); a mass effort to standardize and propagate the National was selected as the supra-dialectal norm. In 1916 the Ministry of Education authorized a system for transcribing alphabets which was renamed the National Phonetic Symbols (NSP) in 1930. Moreover, Taiwan government arbitrary classified the indigenous people as savage people for over fifty years. Finally, the indigenous people lunched the aboriginal movement in 1984 was aimed at fighting for identity and the protection of rights. After almost a decade of the fighting movement, Taiwanese indigenous people finally changed their identity from savage people to the official name ‘indigenous’ people. Now, Tai... ...ginal indigenous name is Abi. Amis people also called each other ‘Pangcah’, in our language, ‘Pangcah’ means people or same tribe. Amis has another meaning which is north, because Amis people live on the northern part of my country. I wish and hope that our voice, our unique culture can be heard and be seen by my country and the rest of the world. Where is the social justice for the indigenous who live in Taiwan? We have fourteen different indigenous tribes in Taiwan; each tribe has their own language and traditional culture which is unique and beautiful. It is sad to consider that one day the indigenous cultures may disappear from Taiwan society. The lift of martial law in 1987 marked a new era for a multi-culture and multi-lingual society in Taiwan. with this political change and worldwide multiculturalism, people stared to view dialects from a new perspective.

Binary Essay -- Math

Do you remember watching the movie, The Matrix? Do you remember the green columns of zeroes and ones that were streaming down the screen? Those ones and zeros are part of a numbering system called Binary. Binary is a simple system that only utilizes two character symbols but accomplishes large counting tasks. Binary is not a number system you would want to use for everyday tasks because there are no shortcuts, you have to do the equation the same way every time and it takes a long time to do most calculations. That is why we use what is called the Denary (AKA Decimal) number system. The Denary number system is called a base-10 system as opposed to Binary being called a base-2 system. Base-10 means that the system uses ten different characters as symbols, 0-9. As stated above Binary uses only two character symbols, 0-1. The chart below should demonstrate how the two system look compared to one another. Denary Binary Denary Binary 1 1 11 1011 2 10 12 1100 3 11 13 1101 4 100 14 1110 5 101 15 1111 6 110 16 10000 7 111 17 10001 8 1000 18 10010 9 1001 19 10011 10 1010 20 10100 Binary has operations just like the Denary system has. Binary addition is the operation that is the most basic and also should give the best example of how the system works. In the Denary system addition works by placing one digit above the other and adding there values. The same goes for Binary. The only difference is how you add zeros and ones. If one has 1+0 or 0+1 the answer is 1. Or if one 0+0 the answer one would get is 0. That all is straight forward but when one gets 1+1 the answer is 10. The reason for this is because there is not a 2 in Binary, but if there were it is 10. Examples of each systems addition is below. Denary Binary 5 ... ...Binary Number System | World of Mathematics Summary, n.d.). This led to Binary being called the machine language because it is very easy to interpret 0 and 1. A machine such as computer can see 0 and 1 as on and off (Leverkuhn, n.d.). For example, a computer processor has inside of it millions of switches that can be turned on and off. This system of on and off tells the computer what it needs to do. Computers may seem as if they have a brain and have very high intelligence but in reality they are just listening for a bell to toll to perform a desired action. Dr. Ka-Wing Wong, Head of Computer Science at Eastern Kentucky University would say, â€Å"Computers are stupid.† Binary is the basis for the Computer Science field communicates with computer. This is also the main purpose of Binary in today’s world. Without Binary the world would be less technologically advanced.

Respiratory System Mechanics Essay

1.) When you forcefully exhale your entire expiratory reserve volume, any air remaining in your lungs is called the residual volume (RV). Why is it impossible to further exhale the RV (that is, where is this air volume trapped, and why is it trapped?) This â€Å"dead space† of air needs to stay in your lungs constantly; otherwise the lung will completely deflate. If the lung has every bit of air sucked out of it, it will collapse and need to be re-inflated. 2.) How do you measure a person’s RV in a laboratory? By the air remaining in the lung 3.) Draw a spirogram that depicts a person’s volumes and capacities before and during a significant cough. Additional Questions for Activity 1. The following questions refer to Activity 1: Measuring Respiratory Volumes and Calculating Capacitates 1.) What would be an example of an everyday respiratory event the ERV button Stimulates? forced expiration 2.) What additional skeletal muscles are utilized in an ERV activity? abdominal-wall muscles and the internal intercostal muscles contract 3.) What was the FEV1 (%) at the initial radius of 5.00 mm? 73.9% 4.) What happened to the FEV1 (%) as the radius of the airways decreased? How well did the results compare with your prediction? FEV1 (%) decreased proportionally with the radius 5.) Explain why the results from the experiment suggest that there is an obstructive, rather than a restrictive, pulmonary problem. The FEV1 (%) decreased proportionally as the radius decreased, characteristic of an obstructive pulmonary problem Activity 2 Comparative Spriometry Chart 2: Spirometery Results Patient Type TV (ml) ERV (ml) IRV (ml) RV (ml) FVC (ml) TLC (ml) FEV1 (ml) FEV1 (%) Normal 500 1500 3000 1000 5000 6000 4000 80% Emphysema 500 750 2000 2750 3250 6000 1625 50% Acute asthma attack 300 750 2700 2250 3750 6000 1500 40% Plus inhaler 500 1500 2800 1200 4800 6000 3840 80% Moderate exercise 1875 1125 2000 1000 ND 6000 ND ND Heavy exercise 3650 750 600 1000 ND 6000 ND ND 1.) Why is residual volume (RV) above normal in a patient with emphysema? The lungs empty slower than normal. 2.) Why did the asthmatic patient’s inhaler medication fail to return all volumes and capacities to normal values right away? The smooth muscle in the bronchioles didn’t return to normal plus mucus still blocks the airway. 3.) Looking at the spirograms generated in this activity, state an easy way to determine whether a person’s exercising effort is moderate or heavy. The more rapid the lines the more heavier the exercise. Additional Questions for Activity 2. The following questions refer to Activity 2 Comparative Spirometry 1.) What lung values changed (From those of the normal patient) in the spirogram when the patient with emphysema was selected? Why did these values change as they did? How well did the results compare with your prediction? ERV, IRV, RV, FVC, FEV, and FEV1 (%) all changed; these are due to the loss of elastic recoil 2.) Which of these two parameters changed more for the patient with emphysema, the FVC or the FEV1? FEV1 decreased significantly more 3.) What lung values changed (from those of the normal patient) in the spirogram when the patient experiencing an acute asthma attack was selected? Why did these values change as they did? How well did the results compare with your prediction? TV, ERV, IRV, RV, FVC, FEV1, and FEV1 (%) all changed; due to restriction of the airways 4.) How is having an acute asthma attack similar to having emphysema? How is it different? Similar because obstructive diseases characterized by increased airway resistance; Different because more difficult to exhale with emphysema that with asthma 5.) Describe the effect that the inhaler medication had on the asthmatic patient. Did all the spirogram values return to â€Å"normal†? Why do you think some values did not return all the way to normal? How well did the results compare with your prediction? Returned to normal were TV, ERV, FEV1 (%); smooth muscles in the bronchioles didn’t return to normal blue mucus still blocks the airway 6.) How much of an increase in FEV1 do you think is required to be considered significantly improved by the medication? 10-15% improvement 7.) With moderate aerobic exercise, which changed more from normal breathing, the ERV or the IRV? How well did the results compare with your prediction? IRV changed more with moderate activity 8.) Compare the breathing rates during normal breathing, moderate exercise, and heavy exercise. TV increased over normal breathing with both moderate and heavy exercise. Activity 3. Effect of Surfactant and Intrapleural Pressure on Respiration Chart 3: Effect of Surfactant and Intrapleural Pressure on Respiration Surfactant Intrapleural pressure left (atm) Intrapleural pressure right (atm) Airflow left (ml.min) Airflow right (ml/min) Total Airflow (ml/min) 0 -4 -4 49.69 49.69 99.38 2 -4 -4 69.56 69.56 139.13 4 -4 -4 89.44 89.44 178.88 0 -4 -4 49.64 49.64 99.38 0 0.00 -4 0.00 49.64 49.69 0 0.00 -4 0.00 49.69 49.69 0 -4 -4 49.69 49.69 99.38 1.) Why is normal quiet breathing so difficult for premature infants? They don’t have much surfactant. 2.) Why does a pneumothorax frequently lad to atelectasis? If the lungs are broken down mechanically, then the chances of developing increased. Additional Questions for Activity 3 The following questions refer to Activity 3: Effect of Surfactant and Intrapleural Pressure on Respiration 1.) What effect does the addition of surfactant have on the airflow? How well did the results compare with your prediction? AIrflow increases because resistance is reduced 2.) Why does surfactant affect airflow in this manner? It decreases surface tension in the alveoli making it easier for the alveoli to increase surface area for gas exchange. 3.) What effect did opening the valve on the left lung? Why does this happen? The lung collapses because the pressure in the pleural cavity was less than the intrapulmonary pressure; air flows from the lungs, causing it to collapse 4.) What effect on the collapsed lung in the left side of the glass bell jar did you observe when you closed the valve? How well did the results compare with your prediction? It caused the lung to collapse because the pressure in the pleural cavity is less than the intrapulmonary pressure. Air flows from the lungs causing the collapse of the lung. 5.) What emergency medical condition does opening the left valve simulate? A collapsed lung (pneumothorax) is a buildup of air in the space between the lung and the chest wall (pleural space). As the amount of air in this space increases, the pressure against the lung causes the lung to collapse 6.) In the last part of the activity, you clicked the Reset button to draw the air out of the intrapleural space and return the lung to its normal resting condition. What emergency procedure would be used to achieve this result if these were the lungs in a living person? A chest by insertion of tube to draw air out of pleural cavity and restore the pressure gradient 7.) What do you think would happen when the valve is opened if the two lungs were in a single large cavity rather than separate cavities? If both lung were in a single large cavity rather than separate cavity when valve was open the entire lung will collapse and there will be no extra lung to breath with and death would occur much sooner.

How useful is the term ‘cultural revolution’ when applied to the sixties?

The sixties are definitely remembered by its generation as a time of significant change. Many associate the period fondly with memories of groups such as The Beatles and The Kinks, at the same time remembering the many protests and movements that hoped to change the ideas and values of society. In answer to whether the term ‘cultural revolution' is useful when applied to the sixties, study of these disciplines is most certainly necessary. Despite the period of study being only a matter of decades from present day, we still face the same problems any historian would face given the same question applied to a time centuries ago. The validity of the sources is of utmost importance; fortunately in regards to the music of the sixties we have records from the time, and charts to show the popularity of groups and artists. In regards to the field of science, there is a great variety of primary source material due to the nature of the profession. One could safely assume that the documented research and findings were indeed accurate and reliable information from educated professionals. Science in the sixties is very much associated with protests, surprisingly not only by rebellious radicals but respected public figures and people at the top of their fields and professional careers. With figures such as Eisenhower raising concerns regarding the dominance and excess of military weapons the public had to stand up and listen. People's faith in the government was undermined by the disillusionment of events that happened in the Vietnam War. The sixties almost certainly contributed to the changing in attitudes towards authority, leading the way for if not a cultural revolution, then a shift in peoples thinking, and an intolerance for civilians to be left in the dark. People were willing to stand up for what they believed in, which resulted in a number of forces converging to cause traditional values to be thrown aside. However, at the same time we must acknowledge that these concerns that were being voiced in the early sixties were primarily a result of the military development in technological warfare in the forties and fifties such as the atomic bomb. The question was, why had these concerns taken so long to be voiced? A major part in the many protests and movements had to be the media; both television and radio were in the position to sensationalize an issue and selectively control the information they presented. Therefore, people began to be driven more by drama than by tradition and reflection. Images of devastation from around the world were transmitted into people's living rooms and for the first time they were able to see for themselves the devastation of war and military arms. If we understand the term ‘cultural revolution' as a transformation in the attitudes towards authority and a change in the everyday lives of people then television had to be at the forefront of this revolution. It was a huge influence behind the protests at MIT opposing America's involvement in the Vietnam War. These images outraged people and this rage ignited movements to oppose the war and resist the conscription. Attitudes to authority changed, there was an outrage against a government who were sending the sixties youth to their deaths for a war that didn't involve America. As a result of scientific research in aid of war, the sixties saw the introduction of chemical warfare; biological weapons such as DDT were developed and used to kill vegetation and crops that the Vietcong were using as groundcover and as food sources. This was a huge revolution and advancement in scientific development but further fuelled the concerns of movements of two kinds, those that were anti-science, and those that were not against science; but the practices of scientists in the late sixties. The revolution also affected the way in which scientists carried out their work, they had lost their intellectual freedom; the military governed what research they conducted and prohibited them from publishing their findings in journals and publications. These were definitely the results of a technological revolution. The irony is, that whilst the government and military funded expensive scientific research, putting not only finances but also great amounts of control and trust into the scientists, it was these scientists who had the most power over the country. Opposition to military involvement wasn't the only counter-movement regarding scientific research in the sixties; there was also huge objection in the roles of women in scientific study. The grievance was more than the issue that there were few women working in the science field, but also that the majority who had been successful in pursuing a career in science weren't able to sustain their posts. A study by Rossi in 1965 showed that compared to males, more females across a range of occupations voluntarily left their posts, more so in the field of science. The study also showed that women counted for only 10% of individuals who worked in science. It was findings like this that began movements for the cause of ‘women's liberation' and were a sign of changing times and a revolution in the role of women who sought for the same rights to education and employment opportunities as men. It was also two women in science who played a major role in revolutionizing ideas about the human embryo. Lenz and Kelsey's research went against all that previously been believed about pregnant women and their unborn children. They're research tackled and exposed the ignorance of traditional practices; primarily challenging the idea at the time, that what didn't harm the pregnant mother, couldn't harm her child. Through their insistence that babies react differently to drugs, nicotine, alcohol etc, they radically transformed neonatal studies. When applied to the struggle for women to be acknowledged in the field of science, the term ‘cultural revolution' is extremely useful, because movements in the sixties paved the way for more women into education. For example, the demand for advanced education to be more accessible to women saw the number of women graduate in primatology go from zero in the 1960's to eight out of ten students in the 1990's. This was clearly an outstanding achievement that shows the impact of the sixties. Music was another field that underwent a radical transformation during the sixties. It wasn't simply a case of new trends being introduced however. The sixties music scene was about existing trends, the revival of early music and the introduction of original sounds. In terms of music, the sixties could be seen as a cultural revolution. The variety of styles contributed to challenging existing ideas about music, and showed the importance for them to co-exist to establish a rich and lively music scene. The sixties music scene is renowned for being associated with the Beatles and rebellious figures such as Jimi Hendrix and The Kinks, however, at the same time existing trends were still hugely popular as was the early music revival. It was the co-existence of the three that made the sixties revolutionary. Bands and artists embraced the rich and diversified music styles, and the sixties saw much experiment with lyrics and instruments. Not least, among these were The Beatles, their shift from usual music styles is evident in Sergeant Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band. Heavily influenced from eastern styles, this was nothing innovative; however, it was a relatively unheard style among the British fans. It appealed to the sixties generation who sought alternative lifestyles and the blending of cultures set to challenge pre-conceived ideas of Brit-pop. Jimi Hendrix was also at the forefront of the sixties music revolution, with erotic and suggestive mannerisms he appealed to the generation who consumed sexual liberation. His rebellious and aggressive music was something that protesters and anarchists at the time could identify with, finding their own voice in this expressive form. The early music revival, although established in the late fifties, was at its most prevalent in the sixties. This interest in a period of music that had previously been ‘forgotten' demonstrated a transformation in the tastes of the sixties generation. Although classic composers such as Handel and Bach had been popular in earlier periods, there was one main difference in the appreciation of early music during the sixties. The emphasis of the early music revival was the desire for authenticity; the sixties saw a change to how these compositions were performed; which led to experimentation in tempo, instruments and styles of singing. It is argued that the sixties were not an isolated period for cultural change; and that the sixties merely followed on from what had began in the late fifties. The changes that were seen to happen in the sixties could just as well be attributed to the upshot of the end of the war. Families had experienced a great disruption in their lives; many had been killed in the war and had left families shattered. The women's liberation could be a reaction to women resenting their return to domestic duties and pre WWII lifestyle, after having filled the roles of men in the workplace when manpower was limited. The seventies also played their part in this cultural change; despite the rise of feminism and gay rights initiating in the late sixties, they didn't fully come into fruition until the seventies. However, in spite of the roles the fifties and seventies played in what is seen as a ‘cultural revolution', the sixties is undoubtedly synonymous with all that was radical and new at that time. In conclusion, having only looked at two disciplines, it leaves us limited to answer whether the sixties were indeed a ‘cultural revolution'. However, in regards to the examples we've seen in both the fields of music and science, there is certainly proof that the sixties were a significant time for change. Its impossible to know for certain whether these changes would have taken place if not for situations and circumstances that arose during the sixties, and whether they were in fact just a consequence of a nation recovering from war. Despite this, the term ‘cultural revolution' is certainly useful when applied to the sixties in a number of examples; attitudes to authority were challenged, women gained greater access into education and music appeared to unite and give voice to rebellious protesters who sought a change in ideas and values.

Fart

During the Harlem Renaissance white art enthusiast aided the development of black artist, by funding these artists. The Blues I’m Playing by Langston Hughes is a short story where a young African American pianist, Oceola Jones, who studies music under the patronage of Dora Ellsworth. Dora is a wealthy, white middle aged, widow with no children. Langston Hughes uses this connection between these characters to express the meaning of the blues. The meaning blues isn’t very clear until the very end of the story, when Oceola and Ms.Ellsworth had their fallout. Ms. Ellsworth is very upset when she learns that Oceola wants to marry Pete Williams. Dora believes that marriage will burden her protegee talents. â€Å"He’ll take all the music out of you† (pg 475). Oceola is playing the piano one last time for Ms. Ellsworth before she leaves to Europe. They begin to argue while Oceola is playing one of Beethoven sonatas. As they continue to argue Osceola’s chang e the style of playing to the Negro Blues. As Osceola plays on Dora ask â€Å"Is this what I spent thousands of dollars to teach you? (pg 475) Oceola replies â€Å"No, this is mine†¦ Listen. †(pg 475) Oceola’s blues began to flourish. Blues that Oceola plays only comes in a time of distress. The fight between Oceola and Ms. Ellsworth force the blues out of Oceola. The Blues in this story represents Oceola real feeling about love, music and art. According to Ralph Ellison â€Å"the blues is an impulse to keep painful details and episodes of a brutal existence alive in one’s aching consciousness†¦Ã¢â‚¬  This definition and Langston Hughes’s interpretation of Blues seem to not conform to each other.Ellison is saying that the artist of the blues has to have a hardship in their past to express it in the blues. In Hughes’s story Oceola really never had anything in her past that made express the blues like she did. It was more that she couldn ’t outlet her frustration of Ms. Ellsworth and her feeling of art to anyone. Oceola bottle up the feeling and lashed out at the end to Ms. Ellsworth in a blues song. Ellison’s and Hughes’s definitions are both good interpretation of what the blues are. By combining Ellison’s and Hughes’s interpretation we have a clear definition of what the blues really are.The Blues is a kind of jazz  that evolved from the music of African-Americans, especially work songs and spirituals. Blues pieces often express worry or depression. The songs help keep remembrance of past hardship experienced and help cope with future problem that may come. The patronage of whites helped the African American art and music explode during the Harlem Renaissance. Langston Hughes uses the connection between Oceola and Ms. Ellsworth to express his interpretation of the Blues. Hughes’s and Ellison’s definitions help explain what the blues actually are.

An Evaluation of Consumer Buying Criteria and Its Impact on the Purchase of Commoditized Laptops

AN EVALUATION OF CONSUMER BUYING CRITERIA AND ITS IMPACT ON THE PURCHASE OF COMMODITIZED LAPTOPS by Rachel V. McClary A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment Of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy Capella University December 2006  © Rachel McClary, 2006 AN EVAULATION OF CONSUMER BUYING CRITERIA AND ITS IMPACT ON THE PURCHASE OF COMMODITIZED LAPTOPS by Rachel V. McClary has been approved December 2006 APPROVED: JIM MIRABELLA, D. B. A, Faculty Mentor and Chair RICHARD MURPHY, Ph. D. , Committee Member ELAINE GUERRAZZI, Ph. D. , Committee Member ACCEPTED AND SIGNED: _________________________________________ JIM MIRABELLA, D. B. A. __________________________________________ Kurt Linberg, Ph. D. Executive Director, School of Business & Technology Abstract Laptop vendors are constantly looking for new ways to differentiate themselves. The commodization of this market precipitates a deeper view into what drives a consumer purchase of one brand over another. Do cer tain demographic profiles exist that are more likely to purchase a particular brand? Do certain product or brand attributes serve as the final decision criteria in the purchase process?What is compelling between laptop brands to drive selection? Results support the premise that relationships exist and that consumers are more likely to purchase one brand over another based on age, education level, gender or technical competence. The likely selection of a laptop brand can also be associated with a particular product or brand attribute. A better understanding of the laptop consumer enhances a vendor’s ability to properly segment and market the message to the right audience, increasing the likelihood of purchase. Implications for laptop vendors and recommendations for them as well as future research are presented.Dedication To Stephen, whose commitment and dedication to this journey was equal if not sometimes greater than my own. To Olivia and Elle, may this serve in later years as evidence that anything can be achieved if you work hard. iii Acknowledgments To committee members, Dr. Dick Murphy and Dr. Elaine Guerazzi, thank you for your careful guidance and direction from the first proposal to the final submission. Your contributions were appreciated and made this final product what it is. An unparalleled gratitude must be extended to my Mentor, Dr.Jim Mirabella, whose tireless commitment, support and confidence given to me throughout the process cannot go unrecognized. I only hope that I can demonstrate the passion and dedication to students he so easily does. iv Table of Contents Acknowledgments iv List of Tables vii CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 1 Introduction to the Problem 1 Background of the Study 1 Statement of the Problem 3 Purpose of the Study 4 Research Questions 4 Significance of the Study 6 Definition of Terms 6 Conceptual Framework 9 Organization of the Remainder of the Study CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW 10 11 Introduction 11 Decision Making Theory 1 Consumer Choice Through Decision Making 22 Attributes as Influencers to Purchase 31 Brand Equity Definitions 41 Application to High Tech 43 CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY 46 Design of the Study 46 Methodology 47 v Study of the Population and Sample 48 Measurement Strategy 50 Variables 51 Research Questions and Hypotheses 51 Data Analysis Procedures 59 Assumptions and Limitations 59 CHAPTER 4. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS 60 Demographics 60 Brand 61 Respondent Characteristics 61 Results 64 CHAPTER 5. RESULTS, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS 174 The Research Questions 174 The Hypotheses 175 Conclusions 91 Recommendations for Laptop Vendors 196 Recommendations for Future Research 199 REFERENCES 201 APPENDIX SURVEY 208 vi List of Tables Table 1. Brand’s Role in Consumer Choice 36 Table 2. Gender Descriptive Statistics 62 Table 3. Age Group Descriptive Statistics 62 Table 4. Education Level Descriptive Statistics 63 Table 5. Technical Competence Level Descriptive Statistics 64 Table 6. Crosstabulation for H1 65 Table 7. Chi Square Test for H1 66 Table 8. Crosstabulation for H2 67 Table 9. Chi Square Test for H2 68 Table 10. Crosstabulation for H3 69 Table 11. Chi Square Test for H3 69 Table 12.Crosstabulation for H4 71 Table 13. Chi Square Test for H4 72 Table 14. Crosstabulation for H5 73 Table 15. Chi Square Test for H5 74 Table 16. Crosstabulation for H6 75 Table 17. Chi Square Test for H6 76 Table 18. Crosstabulation for H7 77 Table 19. Chi Square Test for H7 77 Table 20. Crosstabulation for H8 79 Table 21. Chi Square Test for H8 80 Table 22. Crosstabulation for H9 81 vii Table 23. Chi Square Test for H9 82 Table 24. Crosstabulation for H10 83 Table 25. Chi Square Test for H10 84 Table 26. Crosstabulation for H11 85 Table 27. Chi Square Test for H11 85 Table 28. Crosstabulation for H12 7 Table 29. Chi Square Test for H12 88 Table 30. Crosstabulation for H13 89 Table 31. Chi Square Test for H13 90 Table 32. Crosstabulation for H14 91 Table 33. Chi Square Test for H14 92 Table 34. Crosstabulation for H15 93 Table 35. Chi Square Test for H15 93 Table 36. Crosstabulation for H16 95 Table 37. Chi Square Test for H16 96 Table 38. Crosstabulation for H17 97 Table 39. Chi Square Test for H17 98 Table 40. Crosstabulation for H18 99 Table 41. Chi Square Test for H18 100 Table 42. Crosstabulation for H19 101 Table 43. Chi Square Test for H19 101 Table 44. Crosstabulation for H20 103 Table 45.Chi Square Test for H20 104 viii Table 46. Crosstabulation for H21 105 Table 47. Chi Square Test for H21 106 Table 48. Crosstabulation for H22 107 Table 49. Chi Square Test for H22 108 Table 50. Crosstabulation for H23 109 Table 51. Chi Square Test for H23 109 Table 52. Crosstabulation for H24 111 Table 53. Chi Square Test for H24 112 Table 54. Crosstabulation for H25 113 Table 55. Chi Square Test for H25 114 Table 56. Crosstabulation for H26 115 Table 57. Chi Square Test for H26 116 Table 58. Crosstabulation for H27 117 Table 59. Chi Square Test for H27 117 T able 60. Crosstabulation for H28 119 Table 61.Chi Square Test for H28 120 Table 62. Crosstabulation for H29 121 Table 63. Chi Square Test for H29 122 Table 64. Crosstabulation for H30 123 Table 65. Chi Square Test for H30 124 Table 66. Crosstabulation for H31 125 Table 67. Chi Square Test for H31 125 Table 68. Crosstabulation for H32 127 ix Table 69. Chi Square Test for H32 128 Table 70. Crosstabulation for H33 129 Table 71. Chi Square Test for H33 130 Table 72. Crosstabulation for H34 131 Table 73. Chi Square Test for H34 132 Table 74. Crosstabulation for H35 133 Table 75. Chi Square Test for H35 133 Table 76. Crosstabulation for H36 135 Table 77.Chi Square Test for H36 136 Table 78. Crosstabulation for H37 137 Table 79. Chi Square Test for H37 138 Table 80. Crosstabulation for H38 139 Table 81. Chi Square Test for H38 140 Table 82. Crosstabulation for H39 141 Table 83. Chi Square Test for H39 141 Table 84. Crosstabulation for H40 143 Table 85. Chi Square Test for H40 144 Table 86. Crosstabulation for H41 145 Table 87. Chi Square Test for H41 146 Table 88. Crosstabulation for H42 147 Table 89. Chi Square Test for H42 148 Table 90. Crosstabulation for H43 149 Table 91. Chi Square Test for H43 149 x Table 92. Crosstabulation for H44 151 Table 93.Chi Square Test for H44 152 Table 94. Crosstabulation for H45 154 Table 95. Chi Square Test for H45 155 Table 96. Crosstabulation for H46 156 Table 97. Chi Square Test for H46 157 Table 98. Crosstabulation for H47 158 Table 99. Chi Square Test for H47 159 Table 100. Crosstabulation for H48 160 Table 101. Chi Square Test for H48 161 Table 102. Crosstabulation for H49 162 Table 103. Chi Square Test for H49 163 Table 104. Crosstabulation for H50 164 Table 105. Chi Square Test for H50 165 Table 106. Crosstabulation for H51 166 Table 107. Chi Square Test for H51 167 Table 108. Crosstabulation for H52 68 Table 109. Chi Square Test for H52 169 Table 110. Crosstabulation for H53 170 Table 111. Chi Square Test for H53 171 Table 112. Crosstabulation for H54 172 Table 113. Chi Square Test for H54 173 Table 114. Relationships Between Demographics and Information Sources and Attributes 193 xi Table 115. Relationship Between Demographics and Most Important Evaluative Criterion 194 Table 116. Relationships Between Brand and Information Sources and Attributes 195 xii CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION Introduction to the Problem The era of highly differentiated laptops in the consumer industry is over.No longer does one vendor dominate the market, enjoying their product being seen as exceedingly superior to its competition. What once served to distinguish a laptop provider has now been equalized across the field; every vendor offers the same microprocessors, the same RAM capacity, the same graphics cards, the same networking and wireless functionality. The commoditization of the market has diminished a vendor's ability to strongly differentiate themselves among consumers. With all things virtually equal within the box, what is it that makes a consumer choose one brand over another?Is it still within the box or outside of it that drives the decision? While the evaluative buying criteria consumers use when purchasing these products may be known, what was not known was the impact each of them have in contributing to that decision, and whether combinations of these criteria aligned with a certain demographic profile of a customer segment. Background of the Study The introduction of computer technology to the consumer market brought with it an evolution of change within the household that is comparable to the likes of radios and televisions in the 20th century.It served as a catalyst in jumpstarting not only how consumers obtain information but also the rapidity, quality and density with which they retrieve it. Computers serve as a source of entertainment in addition to its role as resource and productivity tool. 1 Over the years as the benefits of household computers exponentially increased while simultan eously being realized, the technology had equally improved at the same rate. What was once a massive box and monitor taking up an entire desktop was now a sleek, stylish addition to one’s decor, the size of a coffee table book.What had piggybacked on this technology boom was the paradigm shift in the computer industry from highly proprietary, differentiated and premiumpriced hardware to industry-standard, commoditized components that were priced accordingly. Despite the loss of high margin goods, manufacturers continued to push the boundaries of the technology to deliver one more choice point to the consumer – mobile computing. The explosion of laptop/mobile notebooks on to the market further improved user productivity and introduced a sense of freedom otherwise unknown.Similar to any market where a hot product enters, manufacturers were quick to replicate and develop their own under their brand. The Personal Computer was viewed by consumers in the United States as a v aluable tool to enhance productivity and improve the entertainment experience. While the form factor of choice in households today remains the desktop, maintaining more than 50% of the ownership, laptop/mobile notebooks are improving their position, up to 17%. Price difference between the two remains the primary reason for the gap, although manufacturers are introducing lower priced laptops that directly challenge the price of many desktops.The increase of wireless capabilities and the corresponding benefits were beginning to tip the scales toward the mobile computing direction (Daoud & Shim, 2005). Fast forward from the introduction of the computer to the laptop today, where the market has became saturated with well-known brands, each offering nearly indistinguishable products to a population of consumers that are now more educated, have easier access to more information to compare and contrast competitive products and ultimately make a much more fact-based, 2 informed decision.Whi le consumers enjoy the benefit of being more educated with public access to free information regarding laptops, manufacturers continue to conduct studies on consumer behaviors behind closed doors. Little to no market segmentation exist publicly that states who the laptop buyer really is. No public studies had been located at this point of this dissertation development, as market research studies are traditionally private. What has been studied is the decision making process itself, grounded in theory and tested in practice, specifically when consumers seek ought the information that is available to them.Within the normative model of decision making, the consumer collected information about alternatives, evaluated them based on their relevance and made a decision that will maximize the value of that decision (Lau, 1995; Abelson & Levi, 1985). How the consumer collected his information affected the choice strategy he selected. The more complex the decision task, the more likely strate gies will be employed to simplify that task (Johnson & Payne, 1985; Thorngate, 1980). Statement of the Problem As industry standard components within a laptop became more prevalent, the ability to differentiate became more difficult.The commoditization of this market created a challenge for manufacturers to identify the internal motivation among the consumer base that influenced their purchase of one brand over another. This commoditization had proven it difficult for any one vendor to considerably differentiate themselves in the consumer market. Laptop vendors needed to know if relationship existed between the profile of these consumers, the most important buying criteria they used when considering the purchase and the final brand that was selected at point of purchase. 3 Purpose of the StudyThe purpose of this study was to determine if a relationship existed between the brand of laptop consumers selected and a variety of demographic and evaluative buying criteria considered in the process. The demographic variables examined included age, education level and the degree of technical competence. The result provided laptop vendors a unique perspective on the consideration and selection phase. The results further enabled useful segmentation of the population to better target messaging and promotions that will resonate with the appropriate audience.There is tremendous business value in vendors gaining insight into the consumers' minds around this topic as it can drive better marketing activity to influence awareness, consideration, preference and ultimately purchasing campaigns. Marketing the wrong product features to the wrong audience results in a low marketing Return on Investment (ROI). Customer insight is powerful and can properly navigate the vendor toward the right direction in developing message and value propositions that hit the mark, resulting in higher sales and higher returns on their investment.Research Questions Humans are inquisitive. They seek to answer the many questions that are posed as a result of their observations and interpretations. Research acts a framework to help guide an individual through the process of producing high quality, reliable answers to those questions, enabling better decision making. All research begins with the simplest form of a question. While the process for development and refinement is built into the design of the research and its methodology, the spark of inquiry that fuels it is primal and basic This study strove to answer a series of nine research questions within two categories through the development of relevant hypotheses and use of statistical techniques to either prove or disprove them. Demographics 1. Is there a relationship between the demographics of a laptop user and the brand purchased? 2. Does a relationship exist between the demographics of a laptop user and the most important evaluative buying criteria identified by the consumer in contributing to the purchase decision? 3.Is the re a relationship between the relative importance of various information sources and the demographics of a laptop user? 4. Does a relationship exist between the between the demographics of a laptop user and the tangible, product-like attributes considered in the purchase decision? 5. Does a relationship exist between the between the demographics of a laptop user and the soft, intangible attributes considered in the purchase decision? Brand 1. Is there a relationship between the laptop brand purchased and the relative importance of various information sources used by the consumer? . Does a relationship exist between the tangible, product-like attributes considered in the purchase decision and the laptop brand selected? 3. Does a relationship exist between the soft, intangible attributes considered in the purchase decision and the laptop brand selected? 4. Is there a relationship between the laptop brand purchased and the most important evaluative buying criteria identified by the con sumer in contributing to the purchase decision? 5 Significance of the Study Identifying if a consumer tendency existed toward the use of tangible product attributes, (i. e. speeds and feeds†) versus less tangible criteria (i. e. brand awareness, or â€Å"I like Dell's commercials†) helped determine the appropriate course of action to influence them throughout their purchase journey. For instance, a 75 year-old female with a High School Diploma and no technical background would consider the purchase of one laptop over another for very different reasons than a 30 year-old Computer Technician who is heavily into gaming. Each individual develops his or her own collective set of attributes that is evaluated, assessed and weighed to enable a purchase decision.By better understanding the relationships between the criteria, including their relative importance in relation to demographic variables, laptop vendors can more accurately target the appropriate value proposition that w ill resonate with the intended audience. This type of focused segmentation and targeted messaging can result in a higher Return on Marketing Investment (ROMI). The better equipped vendors are to send the right message to the right audience, the better the likelihood it will result in increased sales.The number one function of Marketing is to grow the top line by filling the sales funnel with prospective buyers. Definition of Terms The definitions below were sourced from the online technical resource, whatis. com. Application program interface (API). An application program interface (API – and sometimes spelled application programming interface) is the specific method prescribed by a computer operating system or by an application program by which a programmer writing an application program can make requests of the operating system or another application.An API can be contrasted with a graphical user interface or a command interface (both of which are direct user interfaces) as interfaces to an operating system or a program. † 6 (Retrieved October 14, 2006 from http://searchexchange. techtarget. com/sDefinition/0,,sid43_gci213778,00. html) Commoditization. Commoditization is the existence of like attributes to a product or service. When a product becomes indistinguishable from others like it and consumers buy on price alone, it becomes a commodity. (Retrieved October 14, 2006 from http://www. investopedia. om/terms/c/commoditization. asp) Digital-to-analog conversion. Digital-to-analog conversion is a process in which signals having a few (usually two) defined levels or states (digital) are converted into signals having a theoretically infinite number of states (analog). A common example is the processing, by a modem, of computer data into audio-frequency (AF) tones that can be transmitted over a twisted pair telephone line. The circuit that performs this function is a digital-to-analog converter (DAC). (Retrieved October 14, 2006 from http://search smb. echtarget. com/sDefinition/0,,sid44_gci213875,00. html) Graphics card. A video adapter (alternate terms include graphics card, display adapter, video card, video board and almost any combination of the words in these terms) is an integrated circuit card in a computer or, in some cases, a monitor that provides digital-to-analog conversion, video RAM, and a video controller so that data can be sent to a computer's display. Today, almost all displays and video adapters adhere to a common denominator de facto standard, Video Graphics Array (VGA).VGA describes how data – essentially red, green, blue data streams – is passed between the computer and the display. It also describes the frame refresh rates in hertz. It also specifies the number and width of horizontal lines, which essentially amounts to specifying the resolution of the pixels that are created. VGA supports four different resolution settings and two related image refresh rates. (Retrieved October 14, 2006 f rom http://searchsmb. techtarget. com/sDefinition/0,290660,sid44_gci213290,00. html) Hard disk.A hard disk is part of a unit, often called a â€Å"disk drive,† â€Å"hard drive,† or â€Å"hard disk drive,† that stores and provides relatively quick access to large amounts of data on an electromagnetically charged surface or set of surfaces. Today's computers typically come with a hard disk that contains several billion bytes (gigabytes) of storage. A hard disk is really a set of stacked â€Å"disks,† each of which, like phonograph records, has data recorded electromagnetically in concentric circles or â€Å"tracks† on the disk. A â€Å"head† (something like a phonograph arm but in a relatively fixed position) records (writes) or reads the information on the tracks.Two heads, one on each side of a disk, read or write 7 the data as the disk spins. Each read or write operation requires that data be located, which is an operation called a â€Å" seek. † (Data already in a disk cache, however, will be located more quickly. ) A hard disk/drive unit comes with a set rotation speed varying from 4500 to 7200 rpm. Disk access time is measured in milliseconds. Although the physical location can be identified with cylinder, track, and sector locations, these are actually mapped to a logical block address (LBA) that works with the larger address range on today's hard disks. (Retrieved October 14, 2006 from http://searchstorage. techtarget. com/sDefinition/0,,sid5_gci212227,00. html) Laptop/mobile computer. A laptop computer, usually called a notebook computer by manufacturers, is a battery- or AC-powered personal computer generally smaller than a briefcase that can easily be transported and conveniently used in temporary spaces such as on airplanes, in libraries, temporary offices, and at meetings. A laptop typically weighs less than 5 pounds and is 3 inches or less in thickness. Retrieved October 14, 2006 from http://searchmo bilecomputing. techtarget. com/sDefinition/0,,sid40_gci213610,00. html) Operating system. An operating system (sometimes abbreviated as â€Å"OS†) is the program that, after being initially loaded into the computer by a boot program, manages all the other programs in a computer. The other programs are called applications or application programs. The application programs make use of the operating system by making requests for services through a defined application program interface (API).In addition, users can interact directly with the operating system through a user interface such as a command language or a graphical user interface (GUI). Retrieved October 14, 2006 from (http://searchsmb. techtarget. com/sDefinition/0,,sid44_gci212714,00. html) Processor. A processor is the logic circuitry that responds to and processes the basic instructions that drive a computer. The term processor has generally replaced the term central processing unit (CPU). The processor in a personal c omputer or embedded in small devices is often called a microprocessor. Retrieved October 14, 2006 from http://searchsmb. techtarget. com/sDefinition/0,,sid44_gci212833,00. html) RAM. RAM (random access memory) is the place in a computer where the operating system, application programs, and data in current use are kept so that they can be quickly reached by the computer's processor. RAM is much faster to read from and write to than the other kinds of storage in a computer, the hard disk, floppy disk, and CD-ROM. However, the 8 data in RAM stays there only as long as your computer is running. When you turn the computer off, RAM loses its data.When you turn your computer on again, your operating system and other files are once again loaded into RAM, usually from your hard disk. RAM can be compared to a person's short-term memory and the hard disk to the longterm memory. The short-term memory focuses on work at hand, but can only keep so many facts in view at one time. If short-term mem ory fills up, your brain sometimes is able to refresh it from facts stored in long-term memory. A computer also works this way. If RAM fills up, the processor needs to continually go to the hard disk to overlay old data in RAM with new, slowing down the computer's operation.Unlike the hard disk which can become completely full of data so that it won't accept any more, RAM never runs out of memory. It keeps operating, but much more slowly†. Retrieved October 14, 2006 from (http://searchmobilecomputing. techtarget. com/sDefinition/0,290660,sid40_gci214255,00. html) Conceptual Framework What is it that compels a consumer to purchase the Dell laptop instead of the HP when a consumer is comparing them side by side? Is it just the price? Has the consumer previously had a bad experience with HP?Are the Dell commercials intriguing enough to make consumers think they look like a fun company so their products must be the best? Does someone from a younger generation with a higher degree of technical competency tell an older family member that Dell is the only thing to buy? What drives the decision, and is there any relationship between those drivers and the consumer profile making them? Howard-Sheth (1969) and Engel (1983) developed models that can explain and predict human behavior and how it related to decision making, focusing on the process, learning and perceptions and attitudes.But did a key set of attributes exist that could influence that decision one way or the other? Specifically as it related to technology, the Technology Adoption Model (TAM) proposed five attributes that will be discussed in greater detail in Chapter 2. They 9 include: (a) perceived usefulness, (b) perceived ease of use, (c) relative advantage, (d) technology attitude, and (e) brand (Taylor & Todd, 1995). The first of several variables analyzed in this study was the brand of laptop selected in the purchase decision.Additional variables included both tangible, product-related factors lik e price and features as well as intangible, brand-related attributes like brand image and outside recommendations. The demographic variables were age, education, gender and level of technical competency. What was tested is the existence of a relationship between these variables and the laptop brand purchased. For example, whether or not the competency level of the consumer influenced the purchasing decision was studied.It is often conjectured that those consumers with a high level of technical competency may have a tendency to align more with the physical attributes versus with lower levels that choose to align emotionally. The age of the consumer is another indicator, as it is often speculated whether younger consumers make buying decisions based on intangible attributes such as brand image while older consumers depend more heavily on the more tangible attributes like reliability. Organization of the Remainder of the StudyChapter Two reviews the relevant literature examining decisi on-making theory at its most basic level and then delves deeper into consumer choice as it relates within that theory and further reviews specific attributes that would affect that choice and the role that brand equity plays within. Chapter Three reviews the methodology of this secondary research study while Chapter Four presents the analysis of the data. The final Chapter provides a thorough review of the findings including recommendations to vendors and future research. 10CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW Introduction Fundamental to unlocking the secret of internal motivations surrounding consumer purchase is understanding three key areas: (a) decision making theory that serves as the foundation and the role information plays in this process and the acquisition strategy of the user, (b) what drives consumer choice and the attributes that act as influencers to ultimately enable purchase decisions, and (c) importance of brand and the resulting brand equity that contributes to a consumerà ¢â‚¬â„¢s choice to purchase.Each of these three areas will be reviewed in this chapter. Decision Making Theory Data is data, but information is power. When data can be transformed into information, the user is equipped with better decision making tools. Different data can become information to different people, all based on its relevancy to the user in achieving the desired goal of making an informed decision. The stages a consumer experiences in working through this process are similar, and a certain sense of consistency has emerged as a result of continuous research around decision making.Decision Making Theory and Information Acquisition In order for a decision to be made, an individual must first identify a perceived need that must to be met. As mentioned, for this discussion, the individual will be identified as a consumer with the need for a product or service. Then the process begins. Within the normative 11 model of decision making, the consumer collects information about al ternatives, evaluates them based on their relevancy and makes a decision that will maximize the value of that decision (Lau, 1995;Abelson & Levi, 1985).Otherwise known as the value-maximization theory, the normative model has been criticized as too broad, ignoring human limitations (Moorthy, Ratchford & Talukdar, 1997; Thaler, 1985), and an evolutionary, bounded rationality model emerged to enhance it. Here consumers were assumed to have limited processing capability, selectively search alternatives and terminate the search when a suitable solution has been found (Simon, 1985). Further criticism emerged from this model as well. By selective selection, the consumer is compromising the random nature of the information search and may compromise the decision choice.How a consumer collects his information affects the choice strategy he uses. For example, decision makers choose a certain strategy depending on the complexity of the task. The more complex the decision task, the more likely people employ strategies to simply that task (Johnson & Payne, 1985; Thorngate, 1980). While several theories exist, the valuemaximization/normative model has remained relatively intact and enhanced with the limitation of human processing capacity. Rationality: Substantive Versus ProceduralThe first stage of defining relevancy as it relates to the consumer decision process within Abelson and Levi’s (1985) framework is grounded in the notion that consumers are rational and have the ability to apply a certain sense of logic to the determination and definition of relevant information to aid them in the decision making process. Consumers are considered rational decision-makers in the traditional economic theory of consumer behavior. They implement choice strategies that are the most advantageous to their outcome, based on their perception of the decision environment.The use of cost/benefit analysis demonstrates optimal nature of the 12 consumer’s strategy (Moorthy, Ratchfo rd & Talukdar, 1997; Payne, 1982). In addition Simon (1985) suggests that every consumer, when making a decision, has and uses a â€Å"utility function† that generates a ranking within the alternatives and enables the selection of the product with the highest utility. This process assumes a substantively rational solution. Procedural rationality as defined by Simon (1985) is the flexible nature of human ehavior that adapts and adjusts to the external factors facing and internal factors constraining the consumer. Because it was developed within psychology and the primary focus is on the process, procedural rationality concentrates on the process that generates a particular behavior rather than the outcome. The intent is to observe the individual and the process though which they work that will generate the rational thinking behind the decision. Compensatory Versus Noncompensatory Choice Rules The two major rules guiding choice strategies discussed in the literature are compens atory and noncompensatory.They are differentiated based on three characteristics: the level of attractiveness, commensurability across attributes and form of processing (intradimensional versus interdimensional). The former describes a complex and sophisticated method for Abelson and Levi’s (1985) third element of decision making, information integration, while the latter equally descriptive to information integration deploys a simplistic approach. Each of these rules is also used in the second stage of information collection. Compensatory choice rules require commensurability, enabling trade-off of attribute value of one over another.For example, when purchasing a home, the total square footage may be sacrificed for an ocean view. The level of attractiveness of each of these attributes could be high but trade-offs on initial ranking could occur. Generally compensatory choice mandates an 13 interdimensional form of processing, where the consumer assigns an overall rating to e ach attribute in the choice set (Abelson & Levi, 1985). Noncompensatory choice rules differ. Commensurability is not required, and attribute trade-offs are not allowed. Within this category of rules, there exist conjunctive and disjunctive rules.Both require a set of cutoffs on the choice dimensions. The conjunctive rule assumes a minimum set and product rejection when it does not exceed all of them. The form of processing is interdimensional. Using the home search example above, the consumer using a conjunctive, noncompensatory rule would consider each home separately and reject either if it did not meet both the square footage and view requirements. A caveat to this rule is that if more than one product exceeds all of the requirements, the model will yield an equal number of acceptable alternatives.At this point, the consumer would either develop more stringent cutoffs or use a different choice rule that would yield only one solution. Disjunctive rules also require those cutoffs, although the filter is different. â€Å"An alternative would be considered acceptable if it has at least one value greater than the corresponding cutoff† (Abelson & Levi, 1985, p. 260). With the home example, the homes to be considered acceptable would have at least the desired square footage or view. Both are not necessary.The caveat to this rule is that a different set of cutoffs would generate a different set of alternatives, allowing for multiple choices. The same issue applies to the conjunctive rules. Information Search Strategies Once the relevancy is determined the surgical approach in searching for information can begin. The strategies are learned and deployed cumulatively as the consumer steers his way through the process. The search strategies enable the integration of the information and the eventual selection of the product, exploring all three stages of Abelson and Levi’s (1985) model: 14 elevance, assembly and integration. First the idea of rationality e nables the definition of relevance. That breaks through to pave the way for assembling information which in turn enables the integration. An emergent belief exists among decision science researchers that consumer preferences are often times developed during the decision process rather than being pre-existing (Tversky, Sattath & Slovic, 1988; Bettman, 1979). â€Å"People often do not have well-defined preferences; instead, they may construct them on the spot when needed, such as when they must make a choice† (Bettman, Luce & Payne, 1988, p. 88). The concept of constructive preference enhances the ideas of Simon’s (1985) bounded rationality and limited processing capacity. It introduces the dynamic of human learning and adaptability, further refining the concepts to explain the intricate actions of consumer behavior and decision making. â€Å"One important property of this constructive viewpoint is that preference will often be highly context dependent. This implies tha t processing approaches may change as consumers learn more about problem structure during the course of making a decision† (Bettman, Luce & Payne, 1988, p. 88). Agility connotates a level of intelligence and rationality, bound together by reason and logic. Three search strategy models exist defined by the underlying choice rules (compensatory versus noncompensatory and interdimensional versus intradimensional): linear, additive difference, conjunctive and elimination-by-aspects (Payne, 1976). The additive model represents the consumer choosing between multi-attribute products by evaluating each product separately in a pre-determined choice set, an interdimensional form of processing.Each product attribute is first analyzed and then combined with other attributes that are perceived by the consumer to deliver the most value thereby creating the choice set (Lau, 1995). 15 In contrast, an intradimensional rule is employed within the additive difference model. Products are compared at the individual attribute level, differentiation is identified and the sum of the results is used to identify the best product. With both the linear and additive difference models, the strategies use a compensatory strategy (Lau, 1995). A non-compensatory strategy is used for the elimination-by-aspects (EBA) model.In opposition to the linear and additive difference models, EBA does not support commensurability (i. e. value tradeoffs). Product attributes are weighted based on perceived importance of the consumer. The attribute is then selected with probability proportional to its weight. Those products that do not meet the proportional values for the selected attributes are eliminated. The consumer considers only one product attribute at a time, an intradimensional form of processing (Tversky, 1972). Information Processing Theory of Consumer ChoiceThe theoretical framework of Bettman’s (1979) Information Processing Theory of Consumer Choice (IPTCC) consists of six key eleme nts that represent the hypothetical value chain, each chronologically and cumulatively dependent on the other, with four key summary points: (a) the choice process is iterative and goal-directed, (b) rather than strictly sequential, the process is cyclical, (c) in certain circumstances consumers abandon the conscious decision process in placement of â€Å"learned rules and procedures,† and (d) selection or what is termed â€Å"choice decisions† can be made at several different levels within the process.Considerable research has proven that individuals possess a limited capacity to process information, and when required to consider multiple attributes simultaneously the ability decreases, further limiting the processing capability (Bettman, 1979; Dawes, 1976; Lindsay & Norman, 1972; Norman & Bobrow, 1975; Simon, 1969). The first of six elements, processing 16 capacity, contributes to the theory that with limited capability, the use of heuristics (simple decision strateg ies) and previous experience plays a significant role in decision making.Braunstein (1976) defines heuristics as uncomplicated problem-solving methods that generate acceptable results to often complicated problems. The outcome is achieved by limiting the search to only possible solutions. Lau and Rediawsk (2001) define them as â€Å"problem-solving strategies (often employed automatically or unconsciously) which serve to keep the information processing demands of the task within bounds† (p. 252). There is no argument that heuristics are used in place of capacity and processing capability.Primitive in nature, they compensate for these gaps and enable more accurate choices with minimal cognitive effort (Abelson & Levi, 1985). Internal motivation dictates the amount of the limited processing capacity that is dedicated to a particular decision making activity. It also affects the choice of one behavior rather than a different one, as it prescribes a certain action that drives the consumer to a particular outcome (Bettman, 1979). A caveat to be considered regarding motivation is the control issue that motivational or emotional forces present.They tend to produce a sense of irrationality that may lead to judgmental biases (Abelson & Levi, 1985). Internal motivation is personal and drives unique behaviors in each consumer, yet the end result is the same. A purchase decision has been made. The drivers that triggered the process are likely different as is the path taken. The third element, attention and perceptual coding, breaks attention into two different categories: voluntary and involuntary. Voluntary attention occurs when a consumer consciously allocates his processing capacity toward an intended action while pursuing a pre-determined 17 goal.Involuntary attention on the other hand occurs as â€Å"an allocation of effort to stimuli based more upon automatic mechanisms than upon current goals† (Bettman, 1979, p. 25). As Bettman (1979) and Abelson and Levi (1985) posit, consumers acquire information they deem relevant to aid in achieving the goal of making decision. In addition the information must be evaluated for relevancy. Information acquisition and evaluation, the fourth element of the IPTCC, suggests that a conscious information processing effort is present only in a complex choice scenario. Consumers tend not to seek out new information when making a habitual choice.For situations where information is sought, two sources exist: internal memory and external. Information from one’s memory is what Bettman (1979) refers to as strongly associated, proposing that little processing effort is necessary. For example, when a consumer frequently purchases their favorite brand of toothpaste, any type of information processing is absent. The decision is made without thought. Information stored in memory, prior knowledge, does affect the information processing model and has been studied extensively (Brucks, 1985; Johnson & Russo, 1984; Bettman & Park, 1980).Different measures within the prior knowledge concept have been studied including frequency of purchase (Bettman & Park, 1980), formal training (Sujan, 1985;Hutchinson, 1983) and self-reporting (Johnson & Russo, 1984; Alba, 1983). For situations when the information in memory is either non-existent or insufficient, it will be sought externally from a variety of resources. Bettman and Kakkar (1977) support the series of studies that have been conducted to show that how a consumer collects information is heavily dependent on the format in which that information is presented (Capon & Burke, 1977; Payne 1976; Tversky, 1969) .The search patterns differ as the display format does. The strategies employed by a consumer in selecting a 18 particular product over another have been boiled down to two emerging patterns: Choice by Processing Brands (CPB) and Choice by Processing Attributes (CPA). Information is gathered on several attributes of one brand first and th en collected on a second, a third, and the process continues with CPB. CPA strategy is used by consumers who first look at one attribute across several brands and then proceed to the second attribute. These could be referred to as vertical (CPB) versus horizontal (CPA) approaches to brand products.The use of these strategies by consumers to assembly relevant information to enable their decision is strongly affected by the structure of that information being presented. The consumer’s use of cost/benefit analysis demonstrating rationality was discussed earlier as it related to the determination of relevancy. This is also applicable to discuss as it relates to the information search of that relevant content. Within the context of information search, the same principles apply. A consumer’s search is optimized when the perceived benefit and cost of that search are considered.Experience increases expertise and drives the demand for more information, while product knowledge d ecreases the demand (Moorthy, Ratchford & Talukdar, 1997). The degree of pre-existing knowledge versus the perceived cost of acquiring new knowledge in an effort to decide which product is the best fit for the need is weighed. When a consumer searches on a brand and retrieves all the attribute information desired, â€Å"the uncertainty of that brand is removed, and its true utility revealed â€Å" (p. 265), thus producing a high benefit relative to a lower perceived cost of information acquisition.If the consumer brings existing brand knowledge, the perceived cost is even lower. Moorthy, Ratchford and Talukdar’s (1997) study was able to show that these factors affect the search behavior of the consumer and highlight the effect prior brand knowledge has on the search process. 19 Svenson (1979) summarized several studies in this area, documenting that an increase in the number of product attributes to be considered had a greater effect on the information search than a compara ble increase in products. The limited processing capacity of consumers is clearly demonstrated here.An interesting point to consider is the difference in effect of information collection between the change of product attributes versus number of products. The more attributes, the less information consumers sought. Multi-attribute products, while warranting more information yet resulting in the collection and assembly of less, would lead one to conclude that these types of products and the choices presented to the consumer yield less than desirable results for both the consumer and product vendor. Vendors should integrate these learnings into the development of their products and corresponding attributes.In referring back to the third stage of Abelson and Levi’s (1985) decision making theory, integrating information to make decisions, Bettman’s (1979) concept of perceptual coding supports it. Perceptual coding describes the process through which a consumer navigates by i nterpreting the meaning of information to which he has directed attention. Several theories propose that the interpretation of that information is developed by using both â€Å"information from memory† and â€Å"the perceptual input itself† (Bettman, 1979, p. 25; Lindsay & Norman, 1972).In addition to perceptual coding, the amount of information the consumer collects in the assembly stage can contribute to the success of a quality decision or the failure of a low quality decision. Bettman, Luce, and Payne (1998) found the following: Decisions become more difficult as the amount of information increases, as the time resources available for processing the information decrease, as the degree of conflict among attributes increases, as the amount of missing information increases, as the information display format becomes less organized or more complex. (p. 199) 20Information load can be defined as the independent number of informational items. When asked to choose between t wo products, consumers search equally on both alternatives demonstrating the use of a compensatory decision rule. When asked to review and choose between several products with more attributes to consider, the search concentrates on only a few attributes within the choice set, utilizing a noncompensatory strategy. When faced with too many options, consumers reduce the amount of information collected by artificially reducing the number of alternative product combinations to achieve the objective of choosing one product (Payne, 1976).Less information is sought and noncompensatory strategies used to simplify the task. While time pressure may contribute (Wallsten, 1980; Wright, 1974), findings of these studies conclude that the use of simpler, less optimal rules enable the otherwise complex task to be completed (Abelson & Levi, 1985). Information load and decision quality are inversely related. High levels of information can considerably reduce decision quality.In research conducted by M alhotra (1982), the effects of a wide range of content and information on decision quality was studied with a varied set of measures including a self-determination of overload. The results of the study support the theory and existence of relationship between the amount of information a consumer sees and the quality of the decision made in support of that information. Consumers who are faced with too many attributes are cognitively unable to make the number of necessary comparisons to thoroughly rank them. As a result, they resort to simple choice rules and heuristics to achieve the objective.Further studies by Scammom (1977) suggest that when confronted with increasing amounts of information, consumers will likely split their time between all of the informational objects causing a dilution of the content consumption and eventual overload, causing low decision quality and dissatisfaction among the consumer over their product choice. 21 The final element of the Process, consumption an d learning, refers to the consumer’s progression through the stages to arrive at a final purchase decision and ultimately consume the product. The experience as a result of the purchase and consumption can be recycled and used as information for uture purchase decisions. In a world of endless data, the skill to convert it into useful information to enable an educated, high quality decision is greatly coveted. The three stages of relevancy, assembly and integration are equally important and equally deserving of further observation as they relate to consumer decision making. The more data, the less likely the consumer is able to wade through it and result in a quality decision. A paradox exists. Consumers crave data. They covet information. Yet when presented with a limitless supply, they are overloaded and forced to ignore the abundance.The human condition creates an environment that sustains the individual and supports them in their decision making process. With too much, we get less. With too little, we get less. The careful, delicate balance between starvation and overload is the utopia vendors need to obtain to better enable more satisfied, higher quality decisions consumers can enjoy. Consumer Choice Through Decision Making This section will introduce to the reader the models that support the underlying drivers to consumer choice and the attributes that act as influencers to enable purchase decisions.It will answer the questions: what drives consumer choice and what attributes from those drivers influence purchase? The reader will understand how the consumer approaches the concept of making a decision and the internal, processes and tools he uses to arrive at that decision. For the purposes of this discussion, the scope of attributes influencing purchase as they relate to consumer choice will be bound to the area of technology adoption. The concepts of consumer 22 choice and decision making are described in the general context. Discussion relation t o them focus in on the technology adoption component.Choice can be a double-edged sword. When not faced with it, one feels mandated. When faces with its entirety, one feels overwhelmed. In between exists a delicate balance, once where the decision-maker believes enough in the way of resources has been allocated to enable him to generate a high quality decision. In the context of consumer choice, the process an individual assumes to ensure the quality is driven by the individual, similar in methodology to all but unique in deployment. Drivers to Choice What drives a consumer to choose one product over another?What combination of variables, alternatives, external or internal factors compels the decision? The answer, intricate in its delivery yet simple in its response is fundamentally human behavior. How humans process information and make choices around the selection and consumption of products is fundamentally to answer the question of what drives the actions. Swift and continuous t echnological change in conjunction with the explosion of information sources like the web and television have given consumers too much choice within a time-pressured environment. How can consumers adapt and cope with the decisions they make?Bettman, Luce and Payne (1998) suggest the process is adaptive and present a conceptual framework of five components that helps unlock the secret of understanding the process consumers undergo to form their purchase decisions. Howard and Sheth (1969) focus on four stages of attitudes, perceptions and learning, while Engel (1983) focuses on decision making as problem solving. This section of the paper will guide the reader through a series of theoretical and applied behavior models that provide the foundation, structure and eventual answer to the question: what drives consumer choice? 3 Constructive Consumer Choice Processes in Summary Is the consumer choice process adaptive? Are consumers agile enough to recognize at a moment in time through refl ection that a different approach might yield a more acceptable outcome? Bettman, Luce and Payne (1998) say yes, and support it with five summary concepts that will be presented here. Consumers are goal oriented and develop their process for making a choice to achieve their goal. Driving factors include motivation, like increasing decision quality, reducing effort level or decreasing negative emotions.Because consumers are rational in nature, they also recognize that limited cognitive processing capability requires them to selectively process the most relevant information (Bettman, Luce & Payne, 1998). Continuing with the theme of information, consumers do differ in the rules and strategies they employ when collecting and analyzing it. Several argue that increased knowledge and expertise better enable the consumer to assess the information and select more effective decision strategies (Alba & Hutchinson, 1987; Russo & LeClerc, 1994; West, Brown & Hoch, 1996).Even further down the dis cussion with information, Bettman, Payne and Luce (1998) state that how the information is displayed and presented can also affect/influence the consumer’s decision. Using Slovic’s (1972) principle of concreteness as the basis for their argument, they demonstrate that consumers are more likely to use information â€Å"that is explicitly displayed and will use it in the form it is displayed, without transforming it† (p. 202). Consumers will also vary their process when product categories are comparable and noncomparable.Comparable choices are product alternatives in choice sets that have similar attributes, like a BMW versus a Mercedes. Noncomparable categories involve no similar attributes, like comparing cellular phone to a Mercedes. In those kinds of situations consumers 24 tend to â€Å"develop more abstract attribute or compare overall evaluations† (Bettman, Payne & Luce, 1998, p. 203) to process the information. Time constraint is the fifth and final contributing element to an adaptive decision process. Time dictates availability to process, compare and choose.Consumers will limit each phase as appropriate to accommodate the constraints (Betmman, Payne & Luce, 1998). Howard-Sheth Model Four stages exist within the Howard-Sheth (1969) model, all to occur sequentially, building cumulative momentum to aid the consumer in his choice: (a) inputs, (b) perceptual constructs, (c) learning constructs, and (d) outputs. The inputs a consumer receives are a series of informational objects around the brand or product that can be categorized in three ways, significative, symbolic or social. Information around the physical attributes of a product, like features and functionality are significative.Verbal and visual information in the form of advertising is symbolic, and social content is received through the consumer’s social environment by means of product opinions and recommendations (Warner, 1997). Perceptual constructs are built as a result of the informational inputs. While the inputs serve as the foundation on which to develop a purchase decision, the perceptual construct further refines the base to filter those inputs and frame them in a manner that is comprehensible for the consumer. Two different actions occur here to achieve that objective, contributing to the goal: stimulus ambiguity and overt search.Stimulus ambiguity is not an action, rather an experience; however, the phenomenon describes a state of confusion and lack of clarity around the messages attempting to be received by consumer that thwarts the progress. While many might consider an obstacle like this to detract from the goal, it contributes strongly by leading the consumer to an overt search, concentrating on collecting intelligence/information about the subject of the 25 message. Not every consumer experiences ambiguity and not every consumer will conduct an overt search.These two actions result in a stronger, more vetted set of perceptual constructs that prepare the consumer to learn (Warner, 1997). Learning constructs are strongly influenced by the preceding perceptual constructs. Four learning constructs exist, each driving different reactions, although each equally driving choice: (a) motivation, (b) brand comprehension, (c) confidence, and (d) attitude. Consumers are motivated to satisfy a perceived need, and it is this internal motivation that influences the evaluative criteria used to select the appropriate product to purchase (Warner, 1997).Howard and Sheth (1969) argue that perceptions can be influenced. Brand comprehension simply defined is a consumer’s overall perception of a product. Targeted messaging, previous experience with the brand and external recommendations from trusted sources are three primary factors that influence and drive product choice over another. Brand comprehension, Howard and Sheth (1969) argue, has an equally powerful capability of influencing consumer attitudes toward particul ar products (Warner, 1997).The work and navigation through a series of stages up to this point all contributes to the level of confidence the consumer experiences toward the capability of a particular product to satisfy his initial, perceived need. Confidence determines the next step. Does the consumer feel confident that he is on the right path, that enough information has been collected and properly filtered to aid in his decision? Does he feel as though he has missed something, or has the work up to this point secured his position allowing him to develop an attitude about his selection?Attitude and confidence drive the intention to purchase, which leads to the actual purchase or output. Attitude is developed as a result of the confidence created by consumer wile 26 forming hi opinion through collecting information by way of inputs, developing perceptions as a result of learning from those perceptions. The output is the purchase. Engel Model The Howard-Sheth Model (1969) places gr eater emphasis on perception, attitudes and learning, while the Engel Model (1983) concentrates on decision-making processes.The Engel Model (1983) views consumer decision-making as a problem-solving exercise, assuming the purchase of a particular product will resolve the initial problem. The most common sequence within a decision-making framework introduces six stages of the consumer experience: (a) define the problem, (b) generate alternative solutions, (c) evaluate alternatives, (d) decide on the solution, (e) implement decision, and (f) monitor results. Engel (1983) enhances the sequence by overlaying the driving human factors behind the sequence, preserving the process.Motivation drives the recognition of a need to define the problem in the first stage. To generate alternative solutions in the second, the consumer must conduct an information search. The evaluation stage is where consumers employ a series of decision rules and strategies, dependent on the amount of information a nd the limitations of their processing capacity to eventually arrive at a decision (Warner, 1997). Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) Fishbein and Ajzen’s (1975) Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) stems from social psychology and the focus on the determinants of consciously intended behavior.In its simples form, the theory suggest that an individual’s actions are a direct result of his intentions that are based on personal attitudes and social norms toward a particular behavior. Attitudes related to the evaluation of personal beliefs that a behavior will generate a certain outcome and 27 consequence. Intentions to engage in particular behavior are additionally affective by subjective norms, â€Å"the person’s perception that most people who are important to him or her think that he or she would or should not perform the behavior in question† (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975, p. 302).It is a social filter of sorts, a conscience to play back the potential outcome before i t occurs to allow the individual to assess the risks and rewards. Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) Recognizing that TRA as a predictor of actual behavior was solid in its fundamental assumptions, was at the same time limited with respect to analyzing only those behaviors that were under an individual’s control, Ajzen (1991) introduced the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB). TPB supplements TRA by appending the control factor. TPB adds the perceived behavioral control component as a determinant of intentions to perform a behavior.Perceived behavioral control refers to an individual’s assessment of â€Å"the presence or absence of requisite resources and opportun